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</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#ffdd99;p">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:175%; line-height:1.0em; background:#ffdd99;"><a href="Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.5em 0"></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Forms</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional</a></li>

<li><a href="Reverse_discrimination" title="Reverse discrimination">Reverse</a></li>

<li><a href="Structural_discrimination" title="Structural discrimination">Structural</a></li>

<li><a href="Statistical_discrimination_(economics)" title="Statistical discrimination (economics)">Statistical</a></li>

<li><a href="Systemic_bias" title="Systemic bias">Systemic</a></li>

<li><a href="Taste-based_discrimination" title="Taste-based discrimination">Taste-based</a></li></ul></div></div>

</div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Attributes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist">

<li><a href="Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li>

<li><a href="Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class</a></li>

<li><a href="Ableism" title="Ableism">Disability</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_discrimination" title="Economic discrimination">Economic</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_discrimination" title="Genetic discrimination">Genetic</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_based_on_hair_texture" title="Discrimination based on hair texture">Hair texture</a></li>

<li><a href="Height_discrimination" title="Height discrimination">Height</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistic_discrimination" title="Linguistic discrimination">Language</a>

<ul><li><a href="Dialect_discrimination" title="Dialect discrimination">Dialect</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Lookism" title="Lookism">Looks</a></li>

<li><a href="Sanism" title="Sanism">Mental disorder</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_based_on_nationality" title="Discrimination based on nationality">Nationality or citizenship</a></li>

<li><a href="Racism" title="Racism">Race / Ethnicity</a>

<ul><li><a href="Reverse_racism" title="Reverse racism">Reverse</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_based_on_skin_tone" title="Discrimination based on skin tone">Skin color</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Reverse_sexism" title="Reverse sexism">Reverse</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_orientation_discrimination" title="Sexual orientation discrimination">Sexual orientation</a></li>

<li><a href="Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Species</a></li>

<li><a href="Viewpoint_discrimination" title="Viewpoint discrimination">Viewpoint</a></li></ul></div></div>

</div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Social</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Arophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arophobia">Arophobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Persecution_of_people_with_albinism" title="Persecution of people with albinism">Anti-albinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_against_asexual_people" title="Discrimination against asexual people">Acephobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Adultism" title="Adultism">Adultism</a></li>

<li><a href="Do-gooder_derogation" title="Do-gooder derogation">Anti-altruistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_against_autistic_people" title="Discrimination against autistic people">Anti-autism</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_against_homeless_people" title="Discrimination against homeless people">Anti-homelessness</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_against_drug_addicts" title="Discrimination against drug addicts">Anti-drug addicts</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">Anti-intellectualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_against_intersex_people" title="Discrimination against intersex people">Anti-intersex</a></li>

<li><a href="Bias_against_left-handed_people" title="Bias against left-handed people">Anti-left handedness</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Masonry" title="Anti-Masonry">Anti-Masonry</a></li>

<li><a href="Aporophobia" title="Aporophobia">Aporophobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Audism" title="Audism">Audism</a></li>

<li><a href="Biphobia" title="Biphobia">Biphobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Clannism" class="mw-redirect" title="Clannism">Clannism</a></li>

<li><a href="Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li>

<li><a href="Ephebiphobia" title="Ephebiphobia">Ephebiphobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Health</a>

<ul><li><a href="Social_determinants_of_mental_health" title="Social determinants of mental health">mental</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_determinants_of_health_in_poverty" title="Social determinants of health in poverty">in poverty</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Social_stigma_of_obesity" title="Social stigma of obesity">Fatphobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_against_gay_men" title="Discrimination against gay men">Gayphobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Gerontophobia" title="Gerontophobia">Gerontophobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Heterosexism" title="Heterosexism">Heterosexism</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_against_people_with_HIV/AIDS" title="Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS stigma</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypergamy" title="Hypergamy">Hypergamy</a></li>

<li><a href="Homophobia" title="Homophobia">Homophobia</a></li>

<li><a href="In-group_favoritism" title="In-group favoritism">In-group</a></li>

<li><a href="Leprosy_stigma" title="Leprosy stigma">Leprosy stigma</a></li>

<li><a href="Lesbophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesbophobia">Lesbophobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_against_men" title="Discrimination against men">Against men</a></li>

<li><a href="Misandry" title="Misandry">Misandry</a></li>

<li><a href="Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a>

<ul><li><a href="Misogynoir" title="Misogynoir">Misogynoir</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Nepotism" title="Nepotism">Nepotism</a></li>

<li><a href="Outgroup_favoritism" title="Outgroup favoritism">Outgroup</a></li>

<li><a href="Perpetual_foreigner" title="Perpetual foreigner">Perpetual foreigner</a></li>

<li><a href="Pregnancy_discrimination" title="Pregnancy discrimination">Pregnancy</a></li>

<li><a href="Sectarianism" title="Sectarianism">Sectarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Supremacism" title="Supremacism">Supremacism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Aryanism" title="Aryanism">Aryanism</a></li>

<li><a href="Black_supremacy" title="Black supremacy">Black</a>

<li><a href="Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">Chauvinism</a>

<li><a href="Matriarchy" title="Matriarchy">Female</a></li>

<li><a href="Anthropocentrism" title="Anthropocentrism">Human</a></li>

<li><a href="Nordicism" title="Nordicism">Nordicism</a></li>

<li><a href="Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">Ultranationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Transphobia" title="Transphobia">Transphobia</a>

<ul><li><a href="Discrimination_against_non-binary_people" title="Discrimination against non-binary people">Non-binary</a></li>

<li><a href="Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_against_transgender_men" title="Discrimination against transgender men">Trans men</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Vegaphobia" title="Vegaphobia">Vegaphobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul></div></div>

</div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Religious</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Religious_exemption" title="Religious exemption">Religious exemption</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_persecution#Persecution_of_non-believers_or_irreligion" title="Religious persecution">Persecution of non-believers</a>

<ul><li><a href="Discrimination_against_atheists" title="Discrimination against atheists">Atheism</a></li>

<li><a href="Blasphemy_law" title="Blasphemy law">Blasphemy law</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_censorship" title="Religious censorship">Religious censorship</a></li>

<li>In Islam

<ul><li><a href="Apostasy_in_Islam#Punishment" title="Apostasy in Islam">Apostasy</a></li>

<li><a href="Islamic_religious_police" title="Islamic religious police">Religious police</a></li>

<li><a href="Jizya" title="Jizya">Jizya</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a>

<ul><li><a href="Antireligious_campaigns_in_China" title="Antireligious campaigns in China">In China</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Religious_exclusivism" title="Religious exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">Baháʼí Faith</a></li>

<li><a href="Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Buddhism</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Christianity</a>

<ul><li><a href="Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li>

<li><a href="Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li>

<li><a href="Persecution_of_Copts" title="Persecution of Copts">Coptic Christianity</a></li>

<li><a href="Persecution_of_Jehovah's_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">LDS or Mormon</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li>

<li><a href="Persecution_of_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Christianity" title="Persecution of Orthodox Tewahedo Christianity">Tewahedo Orthodoxy</a></li>

<li><a href="Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Hinduism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li>

<li><a href="Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islam</a>

<ul><li><a href="Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution</a>

<ul><li><a href="Persecution_of_Ahmadis" title="Persecution of Ahmadis">Ahmadiyya</a></li>

<li><a href="Persecution_of_Sufis" title="Persecution of Sufis">Sufism</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Sunnism" title="Anti-Sunnism">Sunnism</a></li>

<li><a href="Persecution_of_minority_Muslim_groups" title="Persecution of minority Muslim groups">minority Muslim</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Judaism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Religious_discrimination_against_modern_pagans" title="Religious discrimination against modern pagans">Neopaganism</a></li>

<li><a href="Persecution_of_Rastafari" title="Persecution of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li>

<li><a href="Persecution_of_Serers" title="Persecution of Serers">Serers</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Sikh_sentiment" title="Anti-Sikh sentiment">Sikhism</a></li>

<li><a href="Persecution_of_Yazidis" title="Persecution of Yazidis">Yazidism</a></li>

<li><a href="Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul></div></div>

</div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Racism" title="Racism">Race or ethnicity</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Anti-Afghan_sentiment" title="Anti-Afghan sentiment">Afghan</a>

<ul><li><a href="Anti-Pashtun_sentiment" title="Anti-Pashtun sentiment">Pashtun</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Hazara_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Hazara sentiment">Hazara</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Anti-African_sentiment" title="Anti-African sentiment">African</a>

<ul><li><a href="Anti-Fulani_sentiment" title="Anti-Fulani sentiment">Fulani</a></li>

<li><a href="Persecution_of_Serers" title="Persecution of Serers">Serers</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Albanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Albanian sentiment">Albanian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Armenian_sentiment" title="Anti-Armenian sentiment">Armenian</a></li>

<li><a href="Racism_against_Asians" title="Racism against Asians">Asian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Anti-Asian_racism_in_France" title="Anti-Asian racism in France">France</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Asian_racism_in_post-Apartheid_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in post-Apartheid South Africa">South Africa</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Asian_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Assyrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Assyrian sentiment">Assyrian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Austrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Austrian sentiment">Austrian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Azerbaijani_sentiment" title="Anti-Azerbaijani sentiment">Azerbaijani</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Black_racism" title="Anti-Black racism">Black people</a>

<ul><li><a href="Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African American</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-black_discrimination_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black discrimination in China">China</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-black_racism_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black racism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Bengali_sentiment" title="Anti-Bengali sentiment">Bengali</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Catalan_sentiment" title="Anti-Catalan sentiment">Catalan</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Chechen_sentiment" title="Anti-Chechen sentiment">Chechen</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Chinese</a>

<ul><li><a href="Anti-Han_sentiment" title="Anti-Han sentiment">Han people</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Colombian_sentiment" title="Anti-Colombian sentiment">Colombian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Croat_sentiment" title="Anti-Croat sentiment">Croat</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Dutch_sentiment" title="Anti-Dutch sentiment">Dutch</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-English_sentiment" title="Anti-English sentiment">English</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Estonian_sentiment" title="Anti-Estonian sentiment">Estonian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Filipino_sentiment" title="Anti-Filipino sentiment">Filipino</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-French_sentiment" title="Anti-French sentiment">French</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Finnish_sentiment" title="Anti-Finnish sentiment">Finnish</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Georgian_sentiment" title="Anti-Georgian sentiment">Georgian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-German_sentiment" title="Anti-German sentiment">German</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Greek_sentiment" title="Anti-Greek sentiment">Greek</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Haitian_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Haitian sentiment">Haitian</a></li>

<li><a href="Persecution_of_Hazaras" title="Persecution of Hazaras">Hazara</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Hungarian_sentiment" title="Anti-Hungarian sentiment">Hungarian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Indian_sentiment" title="Anti-Indian sentiment">Indian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Indonesian_sentiment" title="Anti-Indonesian sentiment">Indonesian</a></li>

<li>Indigenous people

<ul><li><a href="Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Australia">Australia</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Canada">Canada</a></li>

<li><a href="Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Iranian_sentiment" title="Anti-Iranian sentiment">Iranian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Irish_sentiment" title="Anti-Irish sentiment">Irish</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Israel_sentiment" title="Anti-Israel sentiment">Israeli</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Italianism" title="Anti-Italianism">Italian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Japanese</a></li>

<li><a href="Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Jewish</a>

<ul><li><a href="Eliminationist_antisemitism" title="Eliminationist antisemitism">Eliminationist</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Religious</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Yiddish_sentiment" title="Anti-Yiddish sentiment">Anti-Yiddish</a></li>

<li><a href="Zionist_antisemitism" title="Zionist antisemitism">Zionist</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Khmer_sentiment" title="Anti-Khmer sentiment">Khmer</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Korean_sentiment" title="Anti-Korean sentiment">Korean</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Kurdish_sentiment" title="Anti-Kurdish sentiment">Kurdish</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Lithuanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Lithuanian sentiment">Lithuanian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Malay_sentiment" title="Anti-Malay sentiment">Malay</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-M%C4%81ori_sentiment" title="Anti-Māori sentiment">Māori</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Mexican_sentiment" title="Anti-Mexican sentiment">Mexican</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti%E2%80%93Middle_Eastern_sentiment" title="Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment">Middle Eastern</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Mongolianism" title="Anti-Mongolianism">Mongolian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Montenegrin_sentiment" title="Anti-Montenegrin sentiment">Montenegrin</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Nigerian_sentiment" title="Anti-Nigerian sentiment">Nigerian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Pakistan_sentiment" title="Anti-Pakistan sentiment">Pakistani</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Palestinianism" title="Anti-Palestinianism">Palestinian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Pashtun_sentiment" title="Anti-Pashtun sentiment">Pashtun</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Polish_sentiment" title="Anti-Polish sentiment">Polish</a></li>

<li><a href="Lusophobia" title="Lusophobia">Portuguese</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Quebec_sentiment" title="Anti-Quebec sentiment">Quebec</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Romani_sentiment" title="Anti-Romani sentiment">Romani</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Romanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Romanian sentiment">Romanian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Russian_sentiment" title="Anti-Russian sentiment">Russian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Scottish_sentiment" title="Anti-Scottish sentiment">Scottish</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Slavic</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Somali_sentiment" title="Anti-Somali sentiment">Somali</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Spanish_sentiment" title="Anti-Spanish sentiment">Spanish</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Taiwanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Taiwanese sentiment">Taiwanese</a></li>

<li><a href="Tatarophobia" title="Tatarophobia">Tatar</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Tibetan_sentiment" title="Anti-Tibetan sentiment">Tibetan</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Turkish_sentiment" title="Anti-Turkish sentiment">Turkish</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Ukrainian_sentiment" title="Anti-Ukrainian sentiment">Ukrainian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Uyghur_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Uyghur sentiment">Uyghur</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_incidents_of_xenophobia_during_the_Venezuelan_refugee_crisis" title="List of incidents of xenophobia during the Venezuelan refugee crisis">Venezuelan</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Vietnamese_sentiment" title="Anti-Vietnamese sentiment">Vietnamese</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Welsh_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Welsh sentiment">Welsh</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-white_racism" title="Anti-white racism">White people</a></li></ul></div></div>

</div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Manifestations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Algorithmic_bias" title="Algorithmic bias">Algorithmic bias</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-LGBTQ_rhetoric" title="Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric">Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric</a>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_organizations_designated_by_the_Southern_Poverty_Law_Center_as_anti-LGBTQ_hate_groups" title="List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as anti-LGBTQ hate groups">SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li>

<li><a href="Bullying" title="Bullying">Bullying</a></li>

<li><a href="Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">Capital punishment for homosexuality</a></li>

<li><a href="Carnism" title="Carnism">Carnism</a></li>

<li><a href="Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li>

<li><a href="Corrective_rape" title="Corrective rape">Corrective rape</a></li>

<li><a href="Counter-jihad" title="Counter-jihad">Counter-jihad</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li>

<li><a href="Defamation" title="Defamation">Defamation</a></li>

<li><a href="Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a></li>

<li><a href="Dog_whistle_(politics)" title="Dog whistle (politics)">Dog whistle</a></li>

<li><a href="Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_discrimination" title="Economic discrimination">Economic</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_in_education" title="Discrimination in education">Education</a>

<ul><li><a href="Academic_bias" title="Academic bias">Academic</a></li>

<li><a href="Bias_in_curricula" title="Bias in curricula">In curricula</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexism_in_academia" title="Sexism in academia">Sexism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Eliminationism" title="Eliminationism">Eliminationism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Eliminationist_antisemitism" title="Eliminationist antisemitism">Eliminationist antisemitism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">Employment</a></li>

<li><a href="Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">Enemy of the people</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_racism" title="Environmental racism">Environmental racism</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic joke</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_of_excellence" title="Discrimination of excellence">Excellence</a></li>

<li><a href="Gender-based_dress_codes" title="Gender-based dress codes">Gender-based dress codes</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cosmetics_policy" title="Cosmetics policy">Cosmetics policy</a></li>

<li><a href="High_heel_policy" title="High heel policy">High heel policy</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Forced conversion</li>

<li><a href="Freak_show" title="Freak show">Freak show</a></li>

<li><a href="Gay_bashing" title="Gay bashing">Gay bashing</a></li>

<li><a href="Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a>

<ul><li><a href="Transgender_genocide" title="Transgender genocide">Transgender genocide</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Genital_modification_and_mutilation" title="Genital modification and mutilation">Genital modification and mutilation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Circumcision" title="Circumcision">Circumcision</a></li>

<li><a href="Female_genital_mutilation" title="Female genital mutilation">Female genital mutilation</a></li>

<li><a href="Intersex_medical_interventions" title="Intersex medical interventions">Intersex medical interventions</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a>

<ul><li><a href="Genocides_in_history" title="Genocides in history">examples</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">Glass ceiling</a></li>

<li><a href="Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a>

<ul><li><a href="Disability_hate_crime" title="Disability hate crime">Disability hate crime</a></li>

<li><a href="Violence_against_LGBTQ_people" title="Violence against LGBTQ people">Violence against LGBTQ people</a>

<ul><li><a href="Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Violence against transgender people</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Hate_group" title="Hate group">Hate group</a></li>

<li><a href="Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">Hate speech</a></li>

<li><a href="Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a>

<ul><li><a href="Institutional_racism" title="Institutional racism">Institutional racism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Patient_dumping" title="Patient dumping">Homeless dumping</a></li>

<li><a href="Housing_discrimination" title="Housing discrimination">Housing</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypergamy" title="Hypergamy">Hypergamy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Age_disparity_in_sexual_relationships" title="Age disparity in sexual relationships">Age disparity</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Indian_rolling" title="Indian rolling">Indian rolling</a></li>

<li><a href="International_inequality" title="International inequality">International inequality</a></li>

<li><a href="Kill_Haole_Day" title="Kill Haole Day">Kill Haole Day</a></li>

<li><a href="Lavender_scare" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender scare">Lavender scare</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_against_LGBTQ%2B_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Discrimination against LGBTQ+ people">LGBTQ+</a>

<ul><li><a href="LGBTQ_grooming_conspiracy_theory" title="LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory">grooming conspiracy theory</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Language_death" title="Language death">Linguicide</a></li>

<li><a href="Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li>

<li><a href="Media_bias" title="Media bias">Media bias</a></li>

<li><a href="Minority_stress" title="Minority stress">Minority stress</a></li>

<li><a href="Moral_exclusion" title="Moral exclusion">Moral exclusion</a></li>

<li><a href="Mortgage_discrimination" title="Mortgage discrimination">Mortgage</a></li>

<li><a href="Native_American_mascot_controversy" title="Native American mascot controversy">Native American mascots</a>

<ul><li><a href="Atlanta_Braves_tomahawk_chop_and_name_controversy" title="Atlanta Braves tomahawk chop and name controversy">Braves</a></li>

<li><a href="Chicago_Blackhawks_name_and_logo_controversy" title="Chicago Blackhawks name and logo controversy">Blackhawks</a></li>

<li><a href="Kansas_City_Chiefs_name_controversy" title="Kansas City Chiefs name controversy">Chiefs</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Work_(human_activity)" title="Work (human activity)">Occupational</a>

<ul><li><a href="Occupational_apartheid" title="Occupational apartheid">Apartheid</a></li>

<li><a href="Occupational_inequality" title="Occupational inequality">Inequality</a></li>

<li><a href="Occupational_injustice" title="Occupational injustice">Injustice</a></li>

<li><a href="Occupational_segregation" title="Occupational segregation">Segregation</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Opposition_to_immigration" title="Opposition to immigration">Opposition to immigration</a></li>

<li><a href="Paper_genocide" title="Paper genocide">Paper genocide</a></li>

<li><a href="Persecution" title="Persecution">Persecution</a></li>

<li><a href="Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogrom</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_bias" title="Political bias">Political</a>

<ul><li><a href="Political_repression" title="Political repression">Political repression</a></li>

<li><a href="Ideological_repression" title="Ideological repression">Ideological repression</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Purge" title="Purge">Purge</a></li>

<li><a href="Racialization" title="Racialization">Racialization</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Religious terrorism</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Religious violence</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious war</a></li>

<li><a href="Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li>

<li><a href="Selective_enforcement" title="Selective enforcement">Selective enforcement</a>

<ul><li><a href="Selective_prosecution" title="Selective prosecution">Selective prosecution</a></li>

<li><a href="Sentencing_disparity" title="Sentencing disparity">Sentencing disparity</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex-selective_abortion" title="Sex-selective abortion">Sex-selective abortion</a></li>

<li><a href="Slut-shaming" title="Slut-shaming">Slut-shaming</a></li>

<li><a href="Structural_abuse" title="Structural abuse">Structural abuse</a></li>

<li><a href="Structural_discrimination" title="Structural discrimination">Structural discrimination</a></li>

<li><a href="Structural_evil" title="Structural evil">Structural evil</a></li>

<li><a href="Structural_inequality" title="Structural inequality">Structural inequality</a></li>

<li><a href="Structural_violence" title="Structural violence">Structural violence</a></li>

<li><a href="Untermensch" title="Untermensch">Untermensch</a></li>

<li><a href="Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Trans bashing</a></li>

<li><a href="Victimisation" title="Victimisation">Victimisation</a></li>

<li><a href="Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li>

<li><a href="White_flight" title="White flight">White flight</a></li>

<li><a href="White_genocide_conspiracy_theory" title="White genocide conspiracy theory">White genocide conspiracy theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li>

<li><a href="Witch_hunt" title="Witch hunt">Witch hunt</a></li></ul></div></div>

</div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Policies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Algorithmic_wage_discrimination" title="Algorithmic wage discrimination">Algorithmic wage discrimination</a></li>

<li><a href="Age_of_candidacy" title="Age of candidacy">Age of candidacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Apartheid</a>

<ul><li><a href="Apartheid" title="Apartheid">in South Africa</a></li>

<li><a href="Israeli_apartheid" title="Israeli apartheid">in Israel</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Blood purity</a></li>

<li><a href="Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum</a></li>

<li><a href="Breadwinner_model" title="Breadwinner model">Breadwinner model</a></li>

<li><a href="Conscription_and_sexism" title="Conscription and sexism">Conscription and sexism</a></li>

<li><a href="Disability" title="Disability">Disabilities</a>

<ul><li><a href="Disabilities_(Catholics)" title="Disabilities (Catholics)">Catholic</a></li>

<li><a href="Jewish_disabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish disabilities">Jewish</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Disparate_impact" title="Disparate impact">Disparate impact</a></li>

<li><a href="Fagging" title="Fagging">Fagging</a></li>

<li><a href="Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">Gender pay gap</a></li>

<li><a href="Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender roles</a></li>

<li><a href="Protecting_Women's_Private_Spaces_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Protecting Women's Private Spaces Act">Protecting Women's Private Spaces Act</a></li>

<li><a href="Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Gerrymandering" title="Gerrymandering">Gerrymandering</a></li>

<li><a href="Ghetto_benches" title="Ghetto benches">Ghetto benches</a></li>

<li><a href="Internment" title="Internment">Internment</a></li>

<li><a href="Jewish_quota" title="Jewish quota">Jewish quota</a></li>

<li><a href="Opposition_to_LGBTQ_rights" title="Opposition to LGBTQ rights">Opposition to LGBTQ rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Blood_donation_restrictions_on_men_who_have_sex_with_men" title="Blood donation restrictions on men who have sex with men">MSM blood donation restrictions</a></li>

<li><a href="Numerus_clausus" title="Numerus clausus">Numerus clausus (as religious or racial quota)</a></li>

<li><a href="Racial_quota" title="Racial quota">Racial quota</a></li>

<li><a href="Racial_steering" title="Racial steering">Racial steering</a></li>

<li><a href="Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li>

<li><a href="Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)</a></li>

<li><a href="Geographical_segregation" title="Geographical segregation">Segregation</a>

<li><a href="Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial</a>

<li><a href="Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li>

<li><a href="Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Segregation academy</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">religious</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">sexual</a>

<ul><li><a href="Islam_and_gender_segregation" title="Islam and gender segregation">in Islam</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li>

<li><a href="Sodomy_law" title="Sodomy law">Sodomy law</a></li>

<li><a href="State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a></li>

<li><a href="State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li>

<li><a href="Voter_suppression" title="Voter suppression">Voter suppression</a></li>

<li><a href="White_Australia_policy" title="White Australia policy">White Australia policy</a></li></ul></div></div>

</div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Countermeasures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">Affirmative action</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-discrimination_law" title="Anti-discrimination law">Anti-discrimination law</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-racism" title="Anti-racism">Anti-racism</a></li>

<li><a href="Audit_study" title="Audit study">Audit study</a></li>

<li><a href="Autism_rights_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Autism rights movement">Autism rights movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Gender-blind" title="Gender-blind">Gender-blind</a>

<ul><li><a href="Blind_audition" title="Blind audition">Blind audition</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Constitutional_colorblindness" title="Constitutional colorblindness">Constitutional colorblindness</a></li>

<li><a href="Cross-sex_friendship" title="Cross-sex friendship">Cross-sex friendship</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_pluralism" title="Cultural pluralism">Cultural pluralism</a></li>

<li><a href="Diversity%2C_equity%2C_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a>

<ul><li><a href="Diversity_training" title="Diversity training">Diversity training</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Empowerment" title="Empowerment">Empowerment</a></li>

<li><a href="Fat_acceptance_movement" title="Fat acceptance movement">Fat acceptance movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li>

<li><a href="Fighting_Discrimination" title="Fighting Discrimination">Fighting Discrimination</a></li>

<li><a href="Golden_Rule" title="Golden Rule">Golden Rule</a></li>

<li><a href="Hate_speech_laws_by_country" title="Hate speech laws by country">Hate speech laws by country</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Korenizatsiia" title="Korenizatsiia">Korenizatsiia</a></li>

<li><a href="LGBTQ_rights_by_country_or_territory" title="LGBTQ rights by country or territory">LGBTQ rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Mad_pride" title="Mad pride">Mad pride</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_in_the_movement_against_apartheid" title="Music in the movement against apartheid">Music in the movement against apartheid</a></li>

<li><a href="Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">Racial integration</a></li>

<li><a href="Reappropriation" title="Reappropriation">Reappropriation</a></li>

<li><a href="Rock_Against_Sexism" title="Rock Against Sexism">Rock Against Sexism</a></li>

<li><a href="Self-determination" title="Self-determination">Self-determination</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li>

<li><a href="Stop_Murder_Music" title="Stop Murder Music">Stop Murder Music</a></li>

<li><a href="Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li>

<li><a href="Transgender_rights_movement" title="Transgender rights movement">Transgender rights movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">Universal suffrage</a></li>

<li><a href="Women's_rights" title="Women's rights">Women's rights</a></li></ul></div></div>

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<ul><li><a href="Allophilia" title="Allophilia">Allophilia</a></li>

<li><a href="Amatonormativity" title="Amatonormativity">Amatonormativity</a></li>

<li><a href="Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">Capital punishment for homosexuality</a></li>

<li><a href="Cisnormativity" title="Cisnormativity">Cisnormativity</a></li>

<li><a href="Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li>

<li><a href="Criminalization_of_homosexuality" title="Criminalization of homosexuality">Criminalization of homosexuality</a></li>

<li><a href="Dehumanization" title="Dehumanization">Dehumanization</a></li>

<li><a href="Diseases_of_despair" class="mw-redirect" title="Diseases of despair">Diseases of despair</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethnic_penalty" title="Ethnic penalty">Ethnic penalty</a></li>

<li><a href="Figleaf_(linguistics)" title="Figleaf (linguistics)">Figleaf</a></li>

<li><a href="Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">Heteronormativity</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">Historical eugenics</a></li>

<li><a href="Internalized_oppression" title="Internalized oppression">Internalized oppression</a></li>

<li><a href="Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></li>

<li><a href="Masculism" title="Masculism">Masculism</a></li>

<li><a href="Oikophobia" title="Oikophobia">Oikophobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Oppression" title="Oppression">Oppression</a></li>

<li><a href="Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">Police brutality</a></li>

<li><a href="Polyculturalism" title="Polyculturalism">Polyculturalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Power_distance" title="Power distance">Power distance</a></li>

<li><a href="Prejudice" title="Prejudice">Prejudice</a></li>

<li><a href="Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li>

<li><a href="Racial_bias_in_criminal_news_in_the_United_States" title="Racial bias in criminal news in the United States">Racial bias in criminal news in the United States</a></li>

<li><a href="Racism_by_country" title="Racism by country">Racism by country</a></li>

<li><a href="Racial_color_blindness" title="Racial color blindness">Racial color blindness</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Religious intolerance</a></li>

<li><a href="Second-generation_gender_bias" title="Second-generation gender bias">Second-generation gender bias</a></li>

<li><a href="Snob" title="Snob">Snobbery</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_equity" title="Social equity">Social equity</a></li>

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<li><a href="Social_model_of_disability" title="Social model of disability">Social model of disability</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_privilege" title="Social privilege">Social privilege</a>

<ul><li><a href="Christian_privilege" title="Christian privilege">Christian</a></li>

<li><a href="White_privilege" title="White privilege">white</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li>

<li><a href="Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Speciesism</a></li>

<li><a href="Stereotype" title="Stereotype">Stereotype</a></li>

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Forced conversion is the adoption of a <a href="Religion" title="Religion">religion</a> or <a href="Irreligion" title="Irreligion">irreligion</a> under <a href="Coercion" title="Coercion">duress</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> Someone who has been forced to convert to a different religion or irreligion may continue, covertly, to adhere to the beliefs and practices which were originally held, while outwardly behaving as a convert. <a href="Crypto-Judaism" title="Crypto-Judaism">Crypto-Jews</a>, <a href="Crypto-Christianity" title="Crypto-Christianity">Crypto-Christians</a>, <a href="Crypto-Islam" title="Crypto-Islam">Crypto-Muslims</a>, <a href="Crypto-Hinduism" title="Crypto-Hinduism">Crypto-Hindus</a> and <a href="Crypto-paganism" title="Crypto-paganism">Crypto-Pagans</a> are historical examples of the latter.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion_and_proselytization">Religion and proselytization</h2></div>

The religions of the world are divided into two groups: those that actively seek new followers (missionary religions) and those that do not (non-missionary religions). This classification dates back to a lecture given by <a href="Max_M%C3%BCller" title="Max Müller">Max Müller</a> in 1873, and is based on whether or not a religion seeks to gain new converts. The three main religions classified as missionary religions are <a href="Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, <a href="Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, and <a href="Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, while the non-missionary religions include <a href="Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, <a href="Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, and <a href="Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a>. Other religions, such as Primal Religions, <a href="Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>, and <a href="Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a>, may also be considered non-missionary religions.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion_and_power">Religion and power</h2></div>

In general, <a href="Anthropologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropologists">anthropologists</a> have shown that the relationship between <a href="Religion_and_politics" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion and politics">religion and politics</a> is complex, especially when it is viewed over the expanse of <a href="Human_history" title="Human history">human history</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Firth-3">[3]</a>

While religious leaders and the <a href="State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state</a> generally have different aims, both are concerned about power and order; both use reason and emotion to motivate behavior. Throughout history, leaders of religious and political institutions have cooperated, opposed one another, and/or attempted to co-opt each other, for purposes which are both noble and base, and they have implemented programs with a wide range of driving values, from <a href="Compassion" title="Compassion">compassion</a>, which is aimed at alleviating current suffering, to brutal change, which is aimed at achieving long-term goals, for the benefit of groups which have ranged from small <a href="Clique" title="Clique">cliques</a> to all of humanity. The relationship is far from simple. But religion has frequently been used in a coercive manner, and it has also used coercion.<a href="#cite_note-Firth-3">[3]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Buddhism">Buddhism</h2></div>

People may express their faith through the act of taking <a href="Refuge_in_Buddhism" title="Refuge in Buddhism">refuge</a>, and conversions usually require people to recite their acceptance of the <a href="Three_Jewels_and_Three_Roots" title="Three Jewels and Three Roots">Triple Gems of Buddhism</a>. However, they may always practice Buddhism without fully abandoning their own religion.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> According to Chin Human Rights Organisation (CHRO), Christians from the <a href="Chin_people" title="Chin people">Chin ethnic minority group</a> in <a href="Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a> are facing coercion to convert to Buddhism by state actors and programme.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Christianity">Christianity</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a>, <a href="Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a>, <a href="History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a>, <a href="Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">Spread of Christianity</a>, and <a href="Christianity_and_colonialism" title="Christianity and colonialism">Christianity and colonialism</a></div>

<a href="Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Christianity</a> was a <a href="Minority_religion" title="Minority religion">minority religion</a> during much of the middle <a href="Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <a href="Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical Period</a>, and <a href="Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">the early Christians were persecuted during that time</a>. When <a href="Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Constantine I converted to Christianity</a>, it had already grown to be the dominant religion of the Roman Empire. Already under the reign of Constantine I, <a href="Heresy#Christianity" title="Heresy">Christian heretics</a> were being persecuted; beginning in the late 4th century, the <a href="Persecution_of_pagans_in_the_late_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire">ancient pagan religions were also actively suppressed</a>. In the view of many historians, the <a href="Constantinian_shift" title="Constantinian shift">Constantinian shift</a> turned Christianity from a persecuted religion into a religion which was capable of persecuting and sometimes eager to persecute.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_Antiquity">Late Antiquity</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="State_church_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State church of the Roman Empire">State church of the Roman Empire</a></div>

On 27 February 380, together with <a href="Gratian" title="Gratian">Gratian</a> and <a href="Valentinian_II" title="Valentinian II">Valentinian II</a>, <a href="Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a> issued the decree Cunctos populos, the so-called <a href="Edict_of_Thessalonica" title="Edict of Thessalonica">Edict of Thessalonica</a>, recorded in the <a href="Codex_Theodosianus" title="Codex Theodosianus">Codex Theodosianus</a> <a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/s:Codex_Theodosianus_%E2%80%93_Liber_XVI#I.2" class="extiw external" title="la:s:Codex Theodosianus – Liber XVI">xvi.1.2</a>. This declared <a href="Trinitarianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinitarianism">Trinitarian</a> <a href="Nicene_Christianity" title="Nicene Christianity">Nicene Christianity</a> to be the only legitimate imperial religion and the only one entitled to call itself <a href="Catholic_(term)" title="Catholic (term)">Catholic</a>. Other Christians he described as "foolish madmen".<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> He also ended official state support for the traditional <a href="Polytheist" class="mw-redirect" title="Polytheist">polytheist</a> religions and customs.<a href="#cite_note-KaylorPhillips2012-8">[8]</a>

The <a href="Codex_Theodosianus" title="Codex Theodosianus">Codex Theodosianus</a> (Eng. Theodosian Code) was a compilation of the <a href="Roman_law" title="Roman law">laws</a> of the <a href="Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> under the <a href="Christians" title="Christians">Christian</a> emperors since 312. A commission was established by <a href="Theodosius_II" title="Theodosius II">Theodosius II</a> and his <a href="Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">co-emperor</a> <a href="Valentinian_III" title="Valentinian III">Valentinian III</a> on 26 March 429<a href="#cite_note-Oxf-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> and the compilation was published by a constitution of 15 February 438. It went into force in the eastern and western parts of the empire on 1 January 439.<a href="#cite_note-Oxf-9">[9]</a>

<blockquote>It is Our will that all the peoples who are ruled by the administration of Our Clemency shall practice that religion which the divine Peter the Apostle transmitted to the Romans.... The rest, whom We adjudge demented and insane, shall sustain the infamy of heretical dogmas, their meeting places shall not receive the name of churches, and they shall be smitten first by divine vengeance and secondly by the retribution of Our own initiative (Codex Theodosianus XVI 1.2.).<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a>

</blockquote>

<a href="History_of_Jewish_conversion_to_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jewish conversion to Christianity">Forced conversions of Jews</a> were carried out with the support of rulers during <a href="Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a> and the early <a href="Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> in <a href="Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>, the <a href="Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a> and in the <a href="Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-soyer-12">[12]</a>

In <a href="Gregory_of_Tours" title="Gregory of Tours">Gregory of Tours</a>' writing, he claimed that the <a href="Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a> attempted to force all Spanish Catholics to become <a href="Arian_Christians" class="mw-redirect" title="Arian Christians">Arian Christians</a> during their rule in Spain. Gregory also recounted episodes of forced conversion of Jews by <a href="Chilperic_I" title="Chilperic I">Chilperic I</a> and <a href="Avitus_of_Clermont" class="mw-redirect" title="Avitus of Clermont">Avitus of Clermont</a>.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_western_Europe">Medieval western Europe</h3></div>

During the <a href="Saxon_Wars" title="Saxon Wars">Saxon Wars</a>, <a href="Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>, <a href="King_of_the_Franks" class="mw-redirect" title="King of the Franks">King of the Franks</a>, forcibly converted the <a href="Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a> from their native <a href="Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic paganism</a> by way of warfare, and law upon conquest. Examples are the <a href="Massacre_of_Verden" title="Massacre of Verden">Massacre of Verden</a> in 782, when Charlemagne reportedly had 4,500 captive Saxons massacred for rebelling,<a href="#cite_note-Barbero2018-14">[14]</a> and the <a href="Capitulatio_de_partibus_Saxoniae" title="Capitulatio de partibus Saxoniae">Capitulatio de partibus Saxoniae</a>, a law imposed on conquered Saxons in 785, after another rebellion and destruction of churches and killing of missionary priests and monks,<a href="#cite_note-Frassetto2013-15">[15]</a> that prescribed death to those who refused to convert to Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-CHARLEMAGNE-16">[16]</a>

Forced conversion that occurred after the seventh century generally took place during riots and massacres carried out by mobs and clergy without support of the rulers. In contrast, royal persecutions of Jews from the late eleventh century onward generally took the form of expulsions, with some exceptions, such as conversions of Jews in southern Italy of the 13th century, which were carried out by Dominican Inquisitors but instigated by King <a href="Charles_II_of_Naples" title="Charles II of Naples">Charles II of Naples</a>.<a href="#cite_note-soyer-12">[12]</a>

Jews were forced to convert to Christianity by the Crusaders in Lorraine, on the Lower Rhine, in Bavaria and Bohemia, in Mainz and in Worms<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> (see <a href="Rhineland_massacres" title="Rhineland massacres">Rhineland massacres</a>, <a href="Worms_massacre_(1096)" title="Worms massacre (1096)">Worms massacre (1096)</a>).

Though he strongly condemned and prohibited forced conversion and baptism by decree,<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <a href="Pope_Innocent_III" title="Pope Innocent III">Pope Innocent III</a> suggested in a private letter to a bishop in 1201<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> that those who agreed to be baptized to avoid torture and intimidation might be compelled to outwardly observe Christianity:<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a>

<blockquote>[T]hose who are immersed even though reluctant, do belong to ecclesiastical jurisdiction at least by reason of the sacrament, and might therefore be reasonably compelled to observe the rules of the Christian Faith. It is, to be sure, contrary to the Christian Faith that anyone who is unwilling and wholly opposed to it should be compelled to adopt and observe Christianity. For this reason a valid distinction is made by some between kinds of unwilling ones and kinds of compelled ones. Thus one who is drawn to Christianity by violence, through fear and through torture, and receives the sacrament of Baptism in order to avoid loss, he (like one who comes to Baptism in dissimulation) does receive the impress of Christianity, and may be forced to observe the Christian Faith as one who expressed a conditional willingness though, absolutely speaking, he was unwilling ...</blockquote>

During the 12th–13th century <a href="Northern_Crusades" title="Northern Crusades">Northern Crusades</a> against the pagan <a href="Baltic_Finns" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltic Finns">Finnic</a>, <a href="Balts" title="Balts">Baltic</a>, and <a href="West_Slavs" title="West Slavs">West Slavic</a> peoples around the <a href="Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a> forced conversions were a widely used tactic, which received papal sanction.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> These tactics were first adopted during the <a href="Wendish_Crusade" title="Wendish Crusade">Wendish Crusade</a> and became more widespread during the <a href="Livonian_Crusade" title="Livonian Crusade">Livonian Crusade</a> and <a href="Prussian_Crusade" title="Prussian Crusade">Prussian Crusade</a>, in which tactics included killing hostages, massacre, and devastation of the lands of tribes that had not yet submitted.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Most of the populations of these regions were converted only after the repeated rebellion of native populations that did not want to accept Christianity even after initial forced conversion; in Old Prussia, the tactics employed in the initial conquest and subsequent conversion of the territory resulted in the death of most of the native population, whose <a href="Old_Prussian" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Prussian">language</a> consequently became extinct.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_modern_Iberian_peninsula">Early modern Iberian peninsula</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Forced_conversions_of_Muslims_in_Spain" title="Forced conversions of Muslims in Spain">Forced conversions of Muslims in Spain</a></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Morisco" title="Morisco">Morisco</a>, <a href="Marrano" title="Marrano">Marrano</a>, and <a href="Spanish_inquisition" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish inquisition">Spanish inquisition</a></div>

After the end of <a href="Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Islamic control of Spain</a>, Jews were <a href="Alhambra_Decree" title="Alhambra Decree">expelled</a> from Spain in 1492.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> In <a href="Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>, following an order for their expulsion in 1496, only a handful of them were allowed to leave and the rest of them were forced to convert.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> <a href="Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a> <a href="Expulsion_of_Jews_and_Muslims_from_Portugal" class="mw-redirect" title="Expulsion of Jews and Muslims from Portugal">were expelled</a> from Portugal in 1497, and they were gradually forced to convert in the constituent kingdoms of Spain. The forced conversion of Muslims was implemented in the <a href="Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Crown of Castile</a> from 1500 to 1502 and it was implemented in the <a href="Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> in the 1520s.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> After the conversions, the so-called "<a href="New_Christian" title="New Christian">New Christians</a>" were those inhabitants (<a href="Sephardi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi">Sephardic</a> Jews or <a href="Mud%C3%A9jar" title="Mudéjar">Mudéjar</a> Muslims) who were baptized under coercion as well as in the face of execution, becoming forced converts from Islam (<a href="Morisco" title="Morisco">Moriscos</a>, <a href="Converso" title="Converso">Conversos</a> and "secret Moors") or converts from <a href="Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> (<a href="Converso" title="Converso">Conversos</a>, <a href="Crypto-Judaism" title="Crypto-Judaism">Crypto-Jews</a> and <a href="Marrano" title="Marrano">Marranos</a>).

After the forced conversions, when all former Muslims and Jews had ostensibly become Catholic, the <a href="Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish</a> and <a href="Portuguese_Inquisition" title="Portuguese Inquisition">Portuguese Inquisitions</a> primarily targeted forced converts from Judaism and Islam, who came under suspicion, because they were either accused of continuing to adhere to their old religion, or they were accused of falling back into it. Jewish conversos who still resided in Spain and frequently practiced Judaism in secret were suspected of being Crypto-Jews by the "Old Christians". The Spanish Inquisition generated much wealth and income for the church and individual inquisitors by confiscating the property of the persecuted. The end of <a href="Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a> and the <a href="Alhambra_Decree" title="Alhambra Decree">expulsion of the Sephardic Jews</a> from the Iberian Peninsula went hand in hand with the increasing amount of Spanish and Portuguese influence in the world, influence which was exemplified by the Christian conquest of the aboriginal Indian populations of the Americas. The <a href="Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> and <a href="Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> absorbed most of the Jewish and Muslim refugees, but a large majority of them remained in Spain and Portugal by choosing to be Conversos.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_wars_of_religion">European wars of religion</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">European wars of religion</a></div>

The <a href="Peace_of_Augsburg" title="Peace of Augsburg">Peace of Augsburg</a> (1555), signed by <a href="Charles_V%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor</a>, stated that <a href="List_of_states_in_the_Holy_Roman_Empire" title="List of states in the Holy Roman Empire">German princes</a> could choose the religion (Lutheranism or Catholicism) of their realms according to their conscience (the principle of <a href="Cuius_regio%2C_eius_religio" title="Cuius regio, eius religio">cuius regio, eius religio</a>). .Subjects, citizens, or residents were generally forced to convert to their prince's religion, through a principle called ius reformandi. Those who did not wish to conform to the prince's choice were given a grace period in which they were free to emigrate to different regions in which their desired religion had been accepted. However, <a href="Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfs</a> were essentially excluded from this right to emigrate.<a href="#cite_note-:0-28">[28]</a>

After the <a href="Bohemian_Revolt" title="Bohemian Revolt">defeat</a> of the rebellious Protestant Estates of the <a href="Kingdom_of_Bohemia" title="Kingdom of Bohemia">Kingdom of Bohemia</a> by the <a href="Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a> at the <a href="Battle_of_White_Mountain" title="Battle of White Mountain">Battle of White Mountain</a> in 1620, the Habsburgs introduced a <a href="Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> and forcibly converted all Bohemians, even the <a href="Utraquism" title="Utraquism">Utraquist</a> Hussites, back to the Catholic Church. In 1624, Emperor <a href="Ferdinand_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor">Ferdinand II</a> issued a patent that allowed only the Catholic religion in Bohemia.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> In the 1620s, Protestant nobility, burghers, and clergy of Bohemia and Austria were expelled from the Habsburg lands or converted to Catholicism, while peasants were forced to adopt the religion of their new Catholic masters.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a>

The <a href="Dragonnades" title="Dragonnades">Dragonnades</a> was a policy implemented by <a href="Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a> in 1681 to force <a href="Protestantism_in_France" title="Protestantism in France">French Protestants</a> known as <a href="Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a> to convert to Catholicism. The dragonnades caused Protestants to flee France, even before the <a href="Edict_of_Fontainebleau" title="Edict of Fontainebleau">Edict of Fontainebleau</a> of 1685 revoked the religious rights granted them by the <a href="Edict_of_Nantes" title="Edict of Nantes">Edict of Nantes</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colonial_Americas">Colonial Americas</h3></div>

During the <a href="European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a>, forced conversion of the continents' indigenous, non-Christian population was common, especially in <a href="South_America" title="South America">South America</a> and <a href="Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a>, where the conquest of large indigenous polities like the <a href="Inca" class="mw-redirect" title="Inca">Inca</a> and <a href="Aztec" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec">Aztec</a> Empires placed colonizers in control of large non-Christian populations. According to some South American leaders and indigenous groups, there were cases among native populations of conversion under the threat of violence, often because they were compelled to after being conquered, and that the Catholic Church cooperated with civil authority to achieve this end.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russia">Russia</h3></div>

Upon converting to Christianity in the 10th century, <a href="Vladimir_the_Great" title="Vladimir the Great">Vladimir the Great</a>, the ruler of <a href="Kievan_Rus'" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a>, ordered Kiev's citizens to undergo a mass baptism in the Dnieper river.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a>

In the 13th century the pagan populations of the <a href="Baltics" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltics">Baltics</a> faced campaigns of forcible conversion by crusading knight corps such as the <a href="Livonian_Brothers_of_the_Sword" title="Livonian Brothers of the Sword">Livonian Brothers of the Sword</a> and the <a href="Teutonic_Order" title="Teutonic Order">Teutonic Order</a>, which often meant simply dispossessing these populations of their lands and property.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a>

After <a href="Ivan_the_Terrible" title="Ivan the Terrible">Ivan the Terrible</a>'s conquest of the <a href="Khanate_of_Kazan" title="Khanate of Kazan">Khanate of Kazan</a>, the Muslim population faced slaughter, expulsion, forced resettlement and conversion to Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a>

In the 18th century, <a href="Elizabeth_of_Russia" title="Elizabeth of Russia">Elizabeth of Russia</a> launched a campaign of forced conversion of Russia's non-Orthodox subjects, including Muslims and Jews.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Goa_Inquisition">Goa Inquisition</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Goa_Inquisition" title="Goa Inquisition">Goa Inquisition</a></div>

The Portuguese carried out the <a href="Christianisation_of_Goa" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianisation of Goa">Christianisation of Goa</a> in India in the 16th and 17th centuries. The majority of the natives of Goa had converted to Christianity by the end of the 16th century. The Portuguese rulers had implemented state policies encouraging and even rewarding conversions among <a href="Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> subjects. The rapid rise of converts in Goa was mostly the result of Portuguese economic and political control over the Hindus, who were vassals of the Portuguese crown.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a>

In 1567, the conversion of the majority of the native villagers to Christianity allowed the Portuguese to destroy temples in <a href="Bardez" class="mw-redirect" title="Bardez">Bardez</a>, with 300 Hindu temples destroyed. Prohibitions were then declared from December 4, 1567, on public performances of Hindu marriages, sacred thread wearing and cremation. All persons above 15 years of age were compelled to listen to Christian preaching, failing which they were punished. In 1583, Hindu temples at <a href="Assolna" title="Assolna">Assolna</a> and <a href="Cuncolim" title="Cuncolim">Cuncolim</a> were also destroyed by the Portuguese army after the majority of the native villagers there had also converted to Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-Machado-38">[38]</a>

"The fathers of the Church forbade the Hindus under terrible penalties the use of their own sacred books, and prevented them from all exercise of their religion. They destroyed their temples, and so harassed and interfered with the people that they abandoned the city in large numbers, refusing to remain any longer in a place where they had no liberty, and were liable to imprisonment, torture and death if they worshiped after their own fashion the gods of their fathers", wrote <a href="Filippo_Sassetti" title="Filippo Sassetti">Filippo Sassetti</a>, who was in India from 1578 to 1588.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Papal_States">Papal States</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Papal_States_under_Pope_Pius_IX#Protestants_and_Jews" title="Papal States under Pope Pius IX">Papal States under Pope Pius IX § Protestants and Jews</a></div>

In 1858, <a href="Edgardo_Mortara" class="mw-redirect" title="Edgardo Mortara">Edgardo Mortara</a> was taken from his Jewish parents and raised as a Catholic, because he had been baptized by a maid without his parents' consent or knowledge. This incident was called the <a href="Mortara_case" title="Mortara case">Mortara case</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Serbs_during_World_War_II_in_Yugoslavia">Serbs during World War II in Yugoslavia</h3></div>

During <a href="World_War_II_in_Yugoslavia" title="World War II in Yugoslavia">World War II in Yugoslavia</a>, <a href="Serbian_Orthodox_Church" title="Serbian Orthodox Church">Orthodox</a> <a href="Genocide_of_Serbs_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia">Serbs were forcibly converted</a> to Catholicism by the <a href="Ustashe" class="mw-redirect" title="Ustashe">Ustashe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ramet2011-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yeomans2013-41">[41]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hinduism">Hinduism</h2></div>

Indian Christians have alleged that Hindu groups in southern <a href="Chhattisgarh" title="Chhattisgarh">Chhattisgarh</a> have forced Christian converts from Hinduism to revert back to Hinduism.<a href="#cite_note-revert-42">[42]</a> <a href="Hindu_nationalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu nationalist">Hindu nationalist</a> groups at <a href="Agra%2C_Uttar_Pradesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Agra, Uttar Pradesh">Agra, Uttar Pradesh</a>, have reportedly used allurements to convert poor Muslims and Christians to Hinduism against their will.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a>

Apart from the incidents above, there are other reports of forced conversions of <a href="Christians_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Christians in India">Christians</a> and <a href="Muslims_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslims in India">Muslims in India</a> to <a href="Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>. Some of them were converted under duress or against their will, specifically through the <a href="Ghar_Wapsi#Reception" title="Ghar Wapsi">Ghar Wapsi</a> ("returning home") scheme by <a href="Hindu_extremists" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu extremists">Hindu extremists</a>, such as <a href="Shiv_Sena_(1966%E2%80%932022)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shiv Sena (1966–2022)">Shiv Sena</a>, the <a href="Vishva_Hindu_Parishad_(VHP)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP)">VHP</a> & also by the <a href="Political_party" title="Political party">political party</a> of the <a href="BJP" class="mw-redirect" title="BJP">BJP</a>.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> In 2014, Cardinal <a href="Baselios_Cleemis" title="Baselios Cleemis">Baselios Cleemis</a> protested the "forced conversions" to Hinduism, that happened through the Ghar Wapsi ("homecoming") scheme, in <a href="Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh (UP)</a>, <a href="Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a> & <a href="Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> The Shiv Sena has said that <a href="India" title="India">India</a> or <a href="Hindustan" title="Hindustan">Hindustan</a> is not the homeland of Muslims and Christians.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Some Hindu extremist groups like the <a href="Hindu_Mahasabha" title="Hindu Mahasabha">Hindu Mahasabha</a>, have called for <a href="Mass_killing" title="Mass killing">mass killings</a> of Christians<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> & also particularly for the massacres or <a href="Population_control" title="Population control">forced sterilisations</a> of Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Islam">Islam</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">History of Islam</a>, <a href="Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Spread of Islam</a>, <a href="Takfiri" title="Takfiri">Takfiri</a>, <a href="Apostasy_in_Islam#Punishment" title="Apostasy in Islam">Apostasy in Islam § Punishment</a>, <a href="Persecution_of_non-Muslims" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of non-Muslims">Persecution of non-Muslims</a>, <a href="Takfir" title="Takfir">Takfir</a>, <a href="Islamic_Statism" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Statism">Islamic Statism</a>, <a href="Islamic_State" title="Islamic State">Islamic State</a>, <a href="Islamic_Emirate_of_Afghanistan_(1996%E2%80%932001)" title="Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)">Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)</a>, <a href="Taliban" title="Taliban">Taliban</a>, <a href="Boko_Haram" title="Boko Haram">Boko Haram</a>, <a href="Al-Shabaab_(militant_group)" title="Al-Shabaab (militant group)">Al-Shabaab (militant group)</a>, <a href="Kafir" title="Kafir">Kafir</a>, <a href="Yazidi_genocide" title="Yazidi genocide">Yazidi genocide</a>, <a href="Persecution_of_Christians_by_the_Islamic_State" title="Persecution of Christians by the Islamic State">Persecution of Christians by the Islamic State</a>, and <a href="Coerced_religious_conversion_in_Pakistan#Notable_incidents" title="Coerced religious conversion in Pakistan">Coerced religious conversion in Pakistan § Notable incidents</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Against_Christians">Against Christians</h3></div>

After the Arab conquests, a number of Christian Arab tribes suffered enslavement and forced conversion.<a href="#cite_note-Le'Expansion_Nestorienne_en_Asie-59">[59]</a>

The <a href="Teaching_of_Jacob" class="mw-redirect" title="Teaching of Jacob">Teaching of Jacob</a> (written soon after the death of Muhammad), is one of the earliest records on Islam and "implies that Muslims tried, on threat of death to make Christians abjure Christianity and accept Islam.”<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jizya_and_conversion">Jizya and conversion</h3></div>

Non-Muslims were required to pay the jizya while pagans were either required to accept Islam, pay the jizya, be exiled, or be killed, depending on which of the four main <a href="Madhhab" title="Madhhab">schools of Islamic law</a> their conqueror followed.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Some historians believe that forced conversion was rare in early Islamic history,<a href="#cite_note-W53-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-bonner-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ira-65">[65]</a> and most conversions to Islam were voluntary.<a href="#cite_note-Ira-65">[65]</a> Muslim rulers were often more interested in conquest than conversion.<a href="#cite_note-Ira-65">[65]</a> <a href="Ira_M._Lapidus" title="Ira M. Lapidus">Ira Lapidus</a> points towards "interwoven terms of political and economic benefits and of a sophisticated culture and religion" as appealing to the masses. He writes that:<blockquote>The question of why people convert to Islam has always generated the intense feeling. Earlier generations of European scholars believed that conversions to Islam were made at the point of the sword, and that conquered peoples were given the choice of conversion or death. It is now apparent that conversion by force, while not unknown in Muslim countries, was, in fact, rare. Muslim conquerors ordinarily wished to dominate rather than convert, and most conversions to Islam were voluntary. (...) In most cases, worldly and spiritual motives for conversion blended together. Moreover, conversion to Islam did not necessarily imply a complete turning from an old to a totally new life. While it entailed the acceptance of new religious beliefs and membership in a new religious community, most converts retained a deep attachment to the cultures and communities from which they came.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></blockquote><a href="Ulama" title="Ulama">Muslim scholars</a> like <a href="Abu_Hanifa" title="Abu Hanifa">Abu Hanifa</a> and <a href="Abu_Yusuf" title="Abu Yusuf">Abu Yusuf</a> stated that the <a href="Jizya" title="Jizya">jizya</a> tax should be paid by <a href="Kafir" title="Kafir">Non-Muslims</a> (Kuffar) regardless of their religion, some later and also earlier <a href="Faq%C4%ABh" title="Faqīh">Muslim jurists</a> did not permit Non-Muslims who are not <a href="People_of_the_Book" title="People of the Book">People of the Book or Ahle-Kitab</a> (Jews, Christians, Sabians) pay the jizya. Instead, they only allowed them (non-<a href="People_of_the_Book" title="People of the Book">Ahle-Kitab</a>) to avoid death by choosing to convert to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Of the <a href="Madhhab" title="Madhhab">four schools of Islamic jurisprudence</a>, the <a href="Hanafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanafi">Hanafi</a> and <a href="Maliki" class="mw-redirect" title="Maliki">Maliki</a> schools allow polytheists to be granted <a href="Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">dhimmi</a> status, except <a href="Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">Arab polytheists</a>. However, the <a href="Shafi'i" class="mw-redirect" title="Shafi'i">Shafi'i</a>, <a href="Hanbali" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanbali">Hanbali</a> and <a href="Zahiri" class="mw-redirect" title="Zahiri">Zahiri</a> schools only consider <a href="Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a>, <a href="Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>, and <a href="Sabians" title="Sabians">Sabians</a> to be eligible to belong to the dhimmi category.<a href="#cite_note-Bowering-68">[68]</a>

<a href="Wael_Hallaq" title="Wael Hallaq">Wael Hallaq</a> states that in theory, Islamic <a href="Religious_tolerance" title="Religious tolerance">religious tolerance</a> only applied to those religious groups that <a href="Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Islamic jurisprudence</a> considered to be monotheistic "People of the Book", i.e. Christians, Jews, and Sabians if they paid the jizya tax, while to those excluded from the "People of the Book" were only offered two choices: convert to Islam or fight to the death. In practice, the "People of the Book" designation and dhimmi status were even extended to the non-monotheistic religions of the conquered peoples, such as <a href="Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hindus</a>, <a href="Jainism" title="Jainism">Jains</a>, <a href="Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhists</a>, and other non-monotheists.<a href="#cite_note-hallaq-69">[69]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Druze">Druze</h3></div>

The <a href="Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a> have frequently experienced persecution by different Muslim regimes such as the <a href="Shia" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia">Shia</a> <a href="Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Ismaili Fatimid State</a>,<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> <a href="Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a>,<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> <a href="Sunni" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni">Sunni</a> <a href="Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>,<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> and <a href="Egypt_Eyalet" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt Eyalet">Egypt Eyalet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-goren-74">[74]</a> The persecution of the Druze included <a href="Massacre" title="Massacre">massacres</a>, demolishing Druze prayer houses and holy places and forced conversion to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> Those were no ordinary killings and massacres in the Druze's narrative, they were meant to eradicate the whole community according to the Druze narrative.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_period">Early period</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Early_history_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Early history of Islam">Early history of Islam</a></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Early Muslim conquests</a> and <a href="Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Spread of Islam</a></div>

The <a href="Ridda_Wars" title="Ridda Wars">wars of the Ridda</a> (lit. <a href="Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">apostasy</a>) undertaken by <a href="Abu_Bakr" title="Abu Bakr">Abu Bakr</a>, the first <a href="Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">caliph</a> of the <a href="Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a>, against <a href="Tribes_of_Arabia" title="Tribes of Arabia">Arab tribes</a> who had accepted Islam but refused to pay Zakat and Jizya Tax, have been described by some historians as an instance of forced conversion<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> or "reconversion".<a href="#cite_note-lewis2002-78">[78]</a> The rebellion of these Arab tribes was less a relapse to the <a href="Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">pre-Islamic Arabian religion</a> than termination of a political contract they had made with <a href="Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lewis2002-78">[78]</a> Some of these tribal leaders claimed prophethood, bringing themselves in direct conflict with the Muslim Caliphate.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a>

Two out of the four schools of Islamic law, i.e. Hanafi and Maliki schools, accepted non-Arab polytheists to be eligible for the dhimmi status. Under this doctrine, <a href="Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">Arab polytheists</a> were forced to choose between conversion and death. However, according to perception of most Muslim jurists, all Arabs had embraced Islam during the lifetime of Muhammad. Their exclusion therefore had little practical significance after his death in 632.<a href="#cite_note-Bowering-68">[68]</a>

Arab historian <a href="Al-Baladhuri" title="Al-Baladhuri">Al-Baladhuri</a> says that Caliph <a href="Umar" title="Umar">Umar</a> deported Christians who refused to apostatize and convert to Islam, and that he obeyed the order of the prophet who advised: “there shall not remain two religions in the land of Arabia.”<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a>

In the 9th century, the <a href="Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritan population</a> of <a href="Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a> faced persecution and attempts at forced conversion at the hands of the rebel leader ibn Firāsa, against whom they were defended by <a href="Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid caliphal</a> troops.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Historians recognize that during the <a href="Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a>, the Christian populations living in the <a href="Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">lands invaded by the Arab Muslim armies</a> between the 7th and 10th centuries suffered <a href="Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">religious discrimination</a>, <a href="Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">religious persecution</a>, <a href="Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">religious violence</a>, and <a href="Martyrdom_in_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Martyrdom in Christianity">martyrdom</a> multiple times at the hands of Arab Muslim officials and rulers.<a href="#cite_note-Sahner_2020-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-Runciman_1987-83">[83]</a> As <a href="People_of_the_Book" title="People of the Book">People of the Book</a>, Christians under Muslim rule were subjected to <a href="Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">dhimmi</a> status (along with <a href="Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>, <a href="Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a>, <a href="Gnostics" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnostics">Gnostics</a>, <a href="Mandeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandeans">Mandeans</a>, and <a href="Zoroastrians" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrians">Zoroastrians</a>), which was inferior to the status of Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-Runciman_1987-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stillman_1998-84">[84]</a> Christians and other religious minorities thus faced <a href="Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">religious discrimination</a> and <a href="Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">religious persecution</a> in that they were banned from <a href="Proselytism" title="Proselytism">proselytising</a> (for Christians, it was forbidden to <a href="Evangelism" title="Evangelism">evangelize or spread Christianity</a>) in the lands invaded by the Arab Muslims on pain of death, they were banned from bearing arms, undertaking certain professions, and were obligated to dress differently in order to distinguish themselves from Arabs.<a href="#cite_note-Stillman_1998-84">[84]</a> Under <a href="Sharia" title="Sharia">sharia</a>, Non-Muslims were obligated to pay <a href="Jizya" title="Jizya">jizya</a> and <a href="Kharaj" title="Kharaj">kharaj</a> taxes,<a href="#cite_note-Runciman_1987-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stillman_1998-84">[84]</a> together with periodic heavy <a href="Ransom" title="Ransom">ransom</a> levied upon Christian communities by Muslim rulers in order to fund military campaigns, all of which contributed a significant proportion of income to the Islamic states while conversely reducing many Christians to poverty, and these financial and social hardships forced many Christians to convert to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-Stillman_1998-84">[84]</a> Christians unable to pay these taxes were forced to surrender their children to the Muslim rulers as payment who would <a href="History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">sell them as slaves</a> to Muslim households where they <a href="#Islam">were forced to convert to Islam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Stillman_1998-84">[84]</a> Many Christian martyrs <a href="Capital_punishment_in_Islam" title="Capital punishment in Islam">were executed under the Islamic death penalty</a> for defending their Christian faith through dramatic acts of resistance such as refusing to convert to Islam, <a href="Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">repudiation of the Islamic religion</a> and subsequent <a href="Conversion_to_Christianity" title="Conversion to Christianity">reconversion to Christianity</a>, and <a href="Islam_and_blasphemy" title="Islam and blasphemy">blasphemy towards Muslim beliefs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sahner_2020-82">[82]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Umayyad_Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</h3></div>

After the Arab conquests a number of Christian Arab tribes suffered <a href="Slavery_in_the_Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate">enslavement</a> and forced conversion.<a href="#cite_note-Le'Expansion_Nestorienne_en_Asie-59">[59]</a>

During the rise of the Islamic Caliphates, it was increasingly expected for all Arabs to be Muslims and pressure was put on many to convert.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> The Umayyad Caliph <a href="Al-Walid_I" title="Al-Walid I">Al-Walid I</a> said to Shamala, the Christian Arab leader of the Banu <a href="Taghlib" title="Taghlib">Taghlib</a>: "As you are a chief of the Arabs you shame them all by worshipping the cross; obey my wish and turn Muslim." He replied, 'How so? I am chief of Taghlib, and I fear lest I become a cause of destruction to them all if I and they cease to believe in christ" Enraged Al-Walid had him dragged away on his face and tortured; afterward he commanded him again to convert to Islam or else prepare to "eat his own flesh." The Christian Arab again refused, and the order was carried out: Walid's servants "cut off a slice from Shamala's thigh and roasted it in the fire, and they thrust it into his mouth" and he was blinded during this as well. This event is confirmed by the Muslim historian <a href="Abu_al-Faraj_al-Isfahani" title="Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani">Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a>

In the early eighth century under the Umayyads, 63 out of a group of 70 Christian pilgrims from <a href="Iconium" class="mw-redirect" title="Iconium">Iconium</a> were captured, tortured, and executed under the orders of the Arab Governor of Ceaserea for refusing to convert to Islam (seven were forcibly converted to Islam under torture). Soon afterwards, sixty more Christian pilgrims from <a href="Amorium" title="Amorium">Amorium</a> were crucified in Jerusalem.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Almohad_Caliphate">Almohad Caliphate</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Spain_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Spain in the Middle Ages">Spain in the Middle Ages</a> and <a href="Slavery_in_the_Almohad_Caliphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Almohad Caliphate">Slavery in the Almohad Caliphate</a></div>

There were forced conversions in the 12th century under the <a href="Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad dynasty</a> of <a href="North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> and <a href="Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a>, who suppressed the <a href="Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">dhimmi</a> status of Jews and Christians and gave them the choice between conversion, exile, and being executed. The treatment and <a href="Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">persecution</a> of <a href="History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Spain">Jews</a> under Almohad rule was a drastic change.<a href="#cite_note-Verskin_2020-90">[90]</a> Prior to Almohad rule during the <a href="Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Caliphate of Córdoba</a>, Jewish culture experienced a <a href="Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_Spain" title="Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain">Golden Age</a>. <a href="Mar%C3%ADa_Rosa_Menocal" title="María Rosa Menocal">María Rosa Menocal</a>, a specialist in Iberian literature at <a href="Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a>, has argued that "tolerance was an inherent aspect of Andalusian society", and that the Jewish dhimmis living under the Caliphate, while allowed fewer rights than Muslims, were still better off than in <a href="Christian_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Europe">Christian Europe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Many Jews migrated to al-Andalus, where they were not just tolerated but allowed to practice their faith openly. Christians had also practiced their religion openly in Córdoba, and both Jews and Christians lived openly in Morocco as well.

The first Almohad ruler, Abd al-Mumin, allowed an initial seven-month <a href="Grace_period" title="Grace period">grace period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ugr-92">[92]</a> Then he <a href="#Islam">forced</a> most of the urban dhimmi population in Morocco, both Jewish and Christian, to convert to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-Viguera-93">[93]</a> In 1198, the Almohad emir <a href="Abu_Yusuf_Yaqub_al-Mansur" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Mansur">Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Mansur</a> decreed that Jews must wear a dark blue garb, with very large sleeves and a grotesquely oversized hat;<a href="#cite_note-Silverman_2013-94">[94]</a> his son altered the colour to <a href="Yellow_badge" title="Yellow badge">yellow</a>, a change that may have influenced Catholic ordinances some time later.<a href="#cite_note-Silverman_2013-94">[94]</a> Those who converted <a href="Jewish_religious_clothing" title="Jewish religious clothing">had to wear clothing that identified them as Jews</a> since they were not regarded as sincere Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-Viguera-93">[93]</a> Cases of <a href="Martyrdom_in_Judaism" title="Martyrdom in Judaism">mass martyrdom of Jews</a> who refused to convert to Islam are recorded.<a href="#cite_note-ugr-92">[92]</a>

Many of the conversions were superficial. <a href="Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a> urged Jews to choose the superficial conversion over martyrdom and argued, "Muslims know very well that we do not mean what we say, and that what we say is only to escape the ruler's punishment and to satisfy him with this simple confession."<a href="#cite_note-Verskin_2020-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-Viguera-93">[93]</a> <a href="Abraham_Ibn_Ezra" class="mw-redirect" title="Abraham Ibn Ezra">Abraham Ibn Ezra</a> (1089–1164), who himself fled the persecutions of the Almohads, composed an elegy mourning the destruction of many Jewish communities throughout Spain and the Maghreb under the Almohads.<a href="#cite_note-Verskin_2020-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Many Jews fled from territories ruled by the Almohads to Christian lands, and others, like the family of Maimonides, fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands.<a href="#cite_note-frank-96">[96]</a> However, a few Jewish traders still working in North Africa are recorded.<a href="#cite_note-ugr-92">[92]</a>

The treatment and <a href="Muslim_persecution_of_Christians" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim persecution of Christians">persecution</a> of <a href="Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a> under Almohad rule was a drastic change as well.<a href="#cite_note-Wasserstein_2020-97">[97]</a> Many Christians were killed, forced to convert, or forced to flee. Some Christians fled to the Christian kingdoms in the north and west and helped fuel the <a href="Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a>.

Christians under the Almohad rule generally chose to relocate to the <a href="Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Christian principalities</a> (most notably the <a href="Kingdom_of_Asturias" title="Kingdom of Asturias">Kingdom of Asturias</a>) in the north of the <a href="Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a>, whereas Jews decided to stay in order to keep their properties, and <a href="Crypto-Judaism" title="Crypto-Judaism">many of them feigned conversion to Islam, while continuing to believe and practice Judaism in secrecy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a>

During the Almohad persecution, the <a href="Medieval_Jewry" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Jewry">medieval</a> <a href="Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish philosopher</a> and <a href="Rabbi" title="Rabbi">rabbi</a> <a href="Moses_Maimonides" class="mw-redirect" title="Moses Maimonides">Moses Maimonides</a> (1135–1204), one of the leading exponents of the <a href="Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_Spain" title="Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain">Golden Age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula</a>, wrote his Epistle on Apostasy, in which he permitted Jews to feign apostasy under duress, though strongly recommending leaving the country instead.<a href="#cite_note-fine-99">[99]</a> There is dispute amongst scholars as to whether Maimonides himself converted to Islam in order to freely escape from Almohad territory, and then reconverted back to Judaism in either the <a href="Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> or in <a href="Egypt_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Egypt in the Middle Ages">Egypt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> He was later denounced as an apostate and tried in an Islamic court.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seljuk_Empire">Seljuk Empire</h3></div>

In order to increase their numbers in Anatolia, the newly arrived Seljuk Turks took Christian children and forcibly converted them to Islam and turkified them, acts specifically mentioned in <a href="Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a>, around <a href="Samsat" title="Samsat">Samosata</a>, and in western Asia Minor.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Danishmend's_campaigns">Danishmend's campaigns</h3></div>

During his campaigns, Sultan <a href="Melik_Danishmend" class="mw-redirect" title="Melik Danishmend">Malik Danishmend</a> swore to forcibly convert the population of the city of Sisiya Comana to Islam and he did so upon capturing it. The governor of Comana forced its population to pray 5 times a day and those who refused to go to the mosque were brought to it by threat of physical violence. Those who continued to drink wine or do other things that Islam forbids were publicly whipped. The fate of the city of <a href="Euchaita" title="Euchaita">Euchaita</a> was similar, with Malik giving the people the option of converting to Islam or death.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Yemen">Yemen</h3></div>

In the late 1160s, the Yemenite ruler <a href="'Abd-al-Nab%C4%AB_ibn_Mahdi" class="mw-redirect" title="'Abd-al-Nabī ibn Mahdi">'Abd-al-Nabī ibn Mahdi</a> left Jews with the choice between conversion to Islam or <a href="Martyrdom_in_Judaism" title="Martyrdom in Judaism">martyrdom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-Festschrift-106">[106]</a> Ibn Mahdi also imposed his beliefs upon the Muslims besides the Jews. This led to a revival of <a href="Jewish_messianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish messianism">Jewish messianism</a>, but also led to mass-conversion.<a href="#cite_note-Festschrift-106">[106]</a> The persecution ended in 1173 with the defeat of Ibn Mahdi and conquest of Yemen by the brother of <a href="Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a>, and they were allowed to return to their Jewish faith.<a href="#cite_note-Festschrift-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a>

According to two <a href="Cairo_Genizah" class="mw-redirect" title="Cairo Genizah">Cairo Genizah</a> documents, the <a href="Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a> ruler of Yemen, al-Malik al-Mu'izz al-Ismail (reigned from 1197 to 1202) had attempted to force the Jews of <a href="Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a> to convert. The second document details the relief of Jewish community after his murder, and those who had been forced to convert reverted to Judaism.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> While he did not impose Islam upon the foreign merchants, they were forced to pay triple the normal rate of poll tax.<a href="#cite_note-Festschrift-106">[106]</a>

A measure listed in the legal works by <a href="Muhammad_ash-Shawkani" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ash-Shawkani">Al-Shawkānī</a> is of forced conversion of Jewish orphans. No date is given for this decree by modern studies nor who issued it.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> The forced conversion of Jewish orphans was reintroduced under <a href="Yahya_Muhammad_Hamid_ed-Din" title="Yahya Muhammad Hamid ed-Din">Imam Yahya</a> in 1922. The <a href="Orphans'_Decree" title="Orphans' Decree">Orphans' Decree</a> was implemented aggressively for the first ten years. It was re-promulgated in 1928.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ottoman_Empire">Ottoman Empire</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Dev%C5%9Firme" class="mw-redirect" title="Devşirme">Devşirme</a></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Christianity_in_the_Ottoman_Empire#Conversion" title="Christianity in the Ottoman Empire">Christianity in the Ottoman Empire § Conversion</a>, and <a href="Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">slavery in the Ottoman Empire</a></div>

A form of forced conversion became institutionalized during the <a href="Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> in the practice of <a href="Dev%C5%9Firme" class="mw-redirect" title="Devşirme">devşirme</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Wittek_1955-111">[111]</a> a human levy in which Christian boys were seized and collected from their families (usually in the <a href="Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a>), <a href="History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">enslaved</a>, forcefully converted to Islam, and then trained as elite military unit within the Ottoman army or for high-ranking service to the sultan.<a href="#cite_note-Wittek_1955-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> From the mid to late 14th, through early 18th centuries, the <a href="Dev%C5%9Firme" class="mw-redirect" title="Devşirme">devşirme</a>–<a href="Janissary" title="Janissary">janissary</a> system enslaved an estimated 500,000 to one million non-Muslim adolescent males.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> These boys would attain a great education and high social standing after their training and conversion.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a>

In the 17th century, <a href="Sabbatai_Zevi" title="Sabbatai Zevi">Sabbatai Zevi</a>, a <a href="Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardic Jew</a> whose ancestors were welcomed in the Ottoman Empire during the <a href="Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a>, proclaimed himself as the <a href="List_of_Jewish_messiah_claimants" title="List of Jewish messiah claimants">Jewish Messiah</a> and called for the abolition of major Jewish laws and customs. After <a href="Sabbateans" title="Sabbateans">he attracted a large following</a>, he was arrested by the Ottoman authorities and given a choice between execution or conversion to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-JE_1906-115">[115]</a> Zevi opted for a feigned conversion solely to escape the death penalty,<a href="#cite_note-JE_1906-115">[115]</a> and <a href="Crypto-Judaism" title="Crypto-Judaism">continued to believe and practice Judaism</a> along with <a href="D%C3%B6nmeh" title="Dönmeh">his followers</a> in secrecy.<a href="#cite_note-JE_1906-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-tnr.com-117">[117]</a> The Byzantine historian <a href="Doukas_(historian)" title="Doukas (historian)">Doukas</a> recounts two other cases of forced or attempted forced conversion: one of a Christian official who had offended Sultan <a href="Murad_II" title="Murad II">Murad II</a>, and the other of an archbishop.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a>

<a href="Speros_Vryonis" title="Speros Vryonis">Speros Vryonis</a> cites a pastoral letter from 1338 addressed to the residents of <a href="Nicaea" title="Nicaea">Nicaea</a> indicating widespread, forcible conversion by the Turks after it was conquered: "And they [Turks] having captured and enslaved many of our own and violently forced them and dragging them along alas! So that they took up their evil and godlessness."<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a>

After the <a href="Siege_of_Nicaea_(1328%E2%80%931331)" title="Siege of Nicaea (1328–1331)">Siege of Nicaea (1328–1331)</a> The Turks began to force the Christian inhabitants who had escaped the massacres to convert to Islam. The patriarch of Constantinople John XIX wrote a message to the people of Nicea shortly after the city was seized. His letter says that "The invaders endeavored to impose their impure religion on the populace, at all costs, intending to make the inhabitants followers of Muhammad". Patriarch advised the Christians to "be steadfast in your religion" and not to forget that the "Turks are masters of your bodies only, but not of your souls.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a>

<a href="Apostolos_Vakalopoulos" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostolos Vakalopoulos">Apostolos Vakalopoulos</a> comments on the first Ottoman invasions of Europe and Dimitar Angelov gives assessment on the Campaigns on Murad II and Mehmed II and their impact on the conquered native Balkan Christians:<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a>

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote">From the very beginning of the Turkish onslaught [in Thrace] under Suleiman [son of Sultan <a href="Orhan" title="Orhan">Orhan</a>], the Turks tried to consolidate their position by the forcible imposition of Islam. If [the Ottoman historian] <a href="%C5%9E%C3%BCkrullah" title="Şükrullah">Şükrullah</a> is to be believed, those who refused to accept the Moslem faith were slaughtered and their families <a href="Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">enslaved</a>. "Where there were bells," writes the same author [Şükrullah], "Suleiman broke them up and cast them into fires. Where there were churches he destroyed them or converted them into mosques. Thus, in place of bells there were now muezzins. Wherever Christian infidels were still found, vassalage was imposed on their rulers. At least in public they could no longer say 'kyrie eleison' but rather 'There is no God but Allah'; and where once their prayers had been addressed to Christ, they were now to "Muhammad, the prophet of Allah."</blockquote>

According to historian <a href="Demetrios_Constantelos" title="Demetrios Constantelos">Demetrios Constantelos</a>, "Mass forced conversions were recorded during the caliphates of Selim I (1512–1520),...Selim II (1566–1574), and Murat III (1574–1595). On the occasion of some anniversary, such as the capture of a city, or a national holiday, many rayahs were forced to apostacize. On the day of the <a href="Circumcision" title="Circumcision">circumcision</a> of <a href="Mehmed_III" title="Mehmed III">Mehmed III</a>, great numbers of Christians (Albanians, Greeks, Slavs) were forced to convert to Islam."<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-ixtheo.de-125">[125]</a> After reviewing the martyrology of Christians killed by the Ottomans from the fall of Constantinople all the way to the final phases of the Greek War of Independence, Constantelos reports:<a href="#cite_note-ixtheo.de-125">[125]</a>

<blockquote class="templatequote">The Ottoman Turks condemned to death eleven Ecumenical Patriarchs of Constantinople, nearly one hundred bishops, and several thousand priests, deacons, and monks. It is impossible to say with certainty how many men of the cloth were forced to apostasize.</blockquote>

For strategic reasons, the Ottomans forcibly converted Christians living in the frontier regions of Macedonia and northern Bulgaria, particularly in the 16th and 17th centuries. Those who refused were either executed or burned alive.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a>

The community budgets of Jews was heavily burdened by the repurchasing of Jewish slaves abducted by Arab, Berber, or Turkish pirates, or by military raids. The mental trauma due to captivity and slavery caused unransomed prisoners who had lost family, money, and friends to convert to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-The_Decline_of_Eastern_Christianity-127">[127]</a>

During his travels through the Salt lake region of central Anatolia, <a href="Jean-Baptiste_Tavernier" title="Jean-Baptiste Tavernier">Jean-Baptiste Tavernier</a> observed in the town of <a href="Mucur" title="Mucur">Mucur</a>, "there are numbers of Greeks who are forced everyday to become Turks".<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a>

During the <a href="Greek_genocide" title="Greek genocide">genocide and persecution of Greeks in the 20th century</a>, there were cases of forced conversion to Islam<a href="#cite_note-Persecution_of_the_Greeks_in_Turkey_1914_1918-129">[129]</a> (see also <a href="Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a>, <a href="Assyrian_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian genocide">Assyrian genocide</a>, and <a href="Hamidian_massacres" title="Hamidian massacres">Hamidian massacres</a>).

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Safavid_conversion_of_Iran_from_Sunnism_to_Shiism" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavid conversion of Iran from Sunnism to Shiism">Safavid conversion of Iran from Sunnism to Shiism</a></div>

<a href="Ismail_I" title="Ismail I">Ismail I</a>, the founder of the <a href="Safavid" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavid">Safavid</a> dynasty, decreed <a href="Twelver_Shiism" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelver Shiism">Twelver Shiism</a> to be the official religion of state and ordered executions of a number of Sunni intellectuals who refused to accept Shiism.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> Non-Muslims faced frequent persecutions and at times forced conversions under the rule of his dynastic successors.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> Thus, after the capture of the <a href="Hormuz_Island" title="Hormuz Island">Hormuz Island</a>, <a href="Abbas_I_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbas I of Persia">Abbas I</a> required local Christians to convert to <a href="Twelver" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelver">Twelver</a> Shia Islam, <a href="Abbas_II_of_Persia" title="Abbas II of Persia">Abbas II</a> granted his ministers authority to force Jews to become <a href="Shia" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia">Shia</a> Muslims, and <a href="Sultan_Husayn" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultan Husayn">Sultan Husayn</a> decreed forcible conversion of Zoroastrians.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> In 1839, during the <a href="Qajar" class="mw-redirect" title="Qajar">Qajar</a> era the Jewish community in the city of <a href="Mashhad" title="Mashhad">Mashhad</a> was attacked by a mob and subsequently forced to convert to Shia Islam.<a href="#cite_note-JadidAlIslam-134">[134]</a>

In Persia, instances of forced conversion of Jews took place in 1291 and 1318, and those in Baghdad in 1333 and 1344. In 1617 and 1622, a wave of forced conversions and persecution, provoked by the slander of Jewish apostates, swept over the Jews of Persia, sparing neither Nestorian Christians nor Armenians. From 1653 to 1666, during the reign of Shah Abbas II, all the Jews in Persia were Islamized by force. However, religious freedom was eventually restored. A law in 1656 gave Jewish or Christian converts to Islam exclusive rights of inheritance. This law was alleviated for the Christians as a concession to Pope Alexander VII but remained in force for Jews until the end of the nineteenth century. <a href="David_Caz%C3%A8s" title="David Cazès">David Cazés</a> mentions the existence in Tunisia of similar inheritance laws favoring converts to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-The_Decline_of_Eastern_Christianity-127">[127]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_Subcontinent">Indian Subcontinent</h3></div>

In an invasion of the <a href="Kashmir_valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Kashmir valley">Kashmir valley</a> (1015), <a href="Mahmud_of_Ghazni" title="Mahmud of Ghazni">Mahmud of Ghazni</a> plundered the valley, took many prisoners and carried out conversions to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> In his later campaigns, in Mathura, Baran and Kanauj, again, many conversions took place. Those soldiers who surrendered to him were converted to Islam. In Baran (Bulandshahr) alone 10,000 persons were converted to Islam including the king.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> Tarikh-i-Yamini, Rausat-us-Safa and Tarikh-i-Ferishtah speak of construction of mosques and schools and appointment of preachers and teachers by Mahmud and his successor Masud. Wherever Mahmud went, he insisted on the people to convert to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-imwat-1-137">[137]</a> The raids by <a href="Muhammad_of_Ghor" title="Muhammad of Ghor">Muhammad Ghori</a> and his generals brought in thousands of slaves in the late 12th century, most of whom were compelled to convert as one of the preconditions of their freedom.<a href="#cite_note-imwat-1-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> <a href="Sikandar_Butshikan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sikandar Butshikan">Sikandar Butshikan</a> (1394–1417) demolished Hindu temples and forcefully converted Hindus.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a>

<a href="Aurangzeb" title="Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a> employed a number of means to encourage conversions to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> The <a href="Sikh_gurus" title="Sikh gurus">ninth guru</a> of Sikhs, <a href="Guru_Tegh_Bahadur" title="Guru Tegh Bahadur">Guru Tegh Bahadur</a>, was beheaded in Delhi on orders of Aurangzeb for refusing to convert to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> In a Mughal-Sikh war in 1715, 700 followers of <a href="Banda_Singh_Bahadur" title="Banda Singh Bahadur">Banda Singh Bahadur</a> were beheaded.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> Sikhs were executed for not apostatizing from Sikhism.<a href="#cite_note-Rachel_Fell_McDermott,_Leonard_A._Gordon,_Ainslie_T._Embree,_Frances_W._Pritchett,_Dennis_Dalton_2014_9-146">[146]</a> Banda Singh Bahadur was offered a pardon if he converted to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-Kristen_Haar,_Sewa_Singh_Kalsi_110-147">[147]</a> Upon refusal, he was tortured,<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> and was killed with his five-year-old son.<a href="#cite_note-Rachel_Fell_McDermott,_Leonard_A._Gordon,_Ainslie_T._Embree,_Frances_W._Pritchett,_Dennis_Dalton_2014_9-146">[146]</a> Following the execution of Banda, the emperor ordered to apprehend Sikhs anywhere they were found.<a href="#cite_note-Kristen_Haar,_Sewa_Singh_Kalsi_110-147">[147]</a>

18th century ruler <a href="Tipu_Sultan" title="Tipu Sultan">Tipu Sultan</a> persecuted the Hindus, Christians and <a href="Mappilas" class="mw-redirect" title="Mappilas">Mappila Muslims</a>.<a href="#cite_note-alexander-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> During Sultan's <a href="Mysorean_invasion_of_Kerala" class="mw-redirect" title="Mysorean invasion of Kerala">Mysorean invasion of Kerala</a>, hundreds of temples and churches were demolished and ten thousands of Christians and Hindus were killed or converted to Islam by force.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_period">Contemporary period</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="South_Asia">South Asia</h4></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</h5></div>

In <a href="Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>, the <a href="International_Crimes_Tribunal_(Bangladesh)" title="International Crimes Tribunal (Bangladesh)">International Crimes Tribunal</a> tried and convicted several leaders of the Islamic <a href="Razakar_(Pakistan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Razakar (Pakistan)">Razakar</a> militias, as well as Bangladesh Muslim Awami league (Forid Uddin Mausood), of <a href="War_crimes" class="mw-redirect" title="War crimes">war crimes</a> committed against Hindus during the <a href="1971_Bangladesh_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="1971 Bangladesh genocide">1971 Bangladesh genocide</a>. The charges included forced conversion of <a href="Bengali_Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Bengali Hindu">Bengali Hindus</a> to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="India">India</h5></div>

In the <a href="1998_Prankote_massacre" title="1998 Prankote massacre">1998 Prankote massacre</a>, 26 Kashmiri Hindus were beheaded by Islamist militants after their refusal to convert to Islam. The militants struck when the villagers refused demands from the gunmen to convert to Islam and prove their conversion by eating beef.<a href="#cite_note-jk9-157">[157]</a>

During the <a href="Noakhali_riots" title="Noakhali riots">Noakhali riots</a> in 1946, several thousand Hindus were forcibly converted to Islam by Muslim mobs.<a href="#cite_note-khan68-69-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Pakistan">Pakistan</h5></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Religious_discrimination_in_Pakistan" title="Religious discrimination in Pakistan">Religious discrimination in Pakistan</a></div>Members of minority religions in Pakistan face discrimination every day. This leads to socio-political and economic exclusion and severe marginalization in all aspects of life. In a country that is 96 percent Muslim, targeting of its religious minorities (3 percent), especially Shias, Ahmadis, Hindus and Christians, is widespread.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Freedom_of_religion_in_Pakistan" title="Freedom of religion in Pakistan">Freedom of religion in Pakistan</a>, <a href="Human_rights_in_Pakistan" title="Human rights in Pakistan">Human rights in Pakistan</a>, <a href="Minorities_in_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Minorities in Pakistan">Minorities in Pakistan</a>, <a href="Persecution_of_Christians_in_Pakistan" title="Persecution of Christians in Pakistan">Persecution of Christians in Pakistan</a>, <a href="Persecution_of_Hindus_in_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of Hindus in Pakistan">Persecution of Hindus in Pakistan</a>, <a href="Forced_conversions_in_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced conversions in Pakistan">Forced conversions in Pakistan</a>, and <a href="Forced_conversion_of_minority_girls_in_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced conversion of minority girls in Pakistan">Forced conversion of minority girls in Pakistan</a></div>

The rise of <a href="Tehrik-i-Taliban_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan">Taliban</a> <a href="War_in_North-West_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="War in North-West Pakistan">insurgency</a> in Pakistan has been an influential and increasing factor in the persecution of and <a href="Human_rights_in_Pakistan#Discrimination_against_religious_minorities" title="Human rights in Pakistan">discrimination against religious minorities</a>, such as <a href="Persecution_of_Hindus#Pakistan" title="Persecution of Hindus">Hindus</a>, <a href="Christianity_in_Pakistan" title="Christianity in Pakistan">Christians</a>, <a href="Sikhism_in_Pakistan" title="Sikhism in Pakistan">Sikhs</a>, and other minorities.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a>

The <a href="United_Nations_Human_Rights_Council" title="United Nations Human Rights Council">Human Rights Council of Pakistan</a> has reported that cases of forced conversion are increasing.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-Immigration_and_Refugee_Board_of_Canada-163">[163]</a> A 2014 report by the Movement for Solidarity and Peace (MSP) says about 1,000 <a href="Women_in_Pakistan" title="Women in Pakistan">women in Pakistan</a> are forcibly converted to Islam every year (700 Christian and 300 Hindu).<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a>

In 2003, a six-year-old Sikh girl was kidnapped by a member of the <a href="Afridi" title="Afridi">Afridi</a> tribe in Northwest Frontier Province; the alleged kidnapper claimed the girl was actually 12 years old, had converted to Islam, and therefore could not be returned to her non-Muslim family.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> In Pakistan's Sindh province, a distressing pattern of crimes has emerged, including the abduction, coerced conversion to Islam, and subsequent marriage to older Muslim men who are often abductors. These crimes primarily target underage girls from impoverished Hindu families.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a>

Rinkle Kumari, a 19-year Pakistani student, Lata Kumari, and Asha Kumari, a Hindu working in a beauty parlor, were allegedly forced to convert from Hinduism to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> They told the judge that they wanted to go with their parents.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> Their cases were appealed all the way to the <a href="Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan" title="Supreme Court of Pakistan">Supreme Court of Pakistan</a>. The appeal was admitted but remained unheard ever after.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> Rinkle was abducted by a gang and "forced" to convert to Islam, before being head shaved.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a>

<a href="Sikhs" title="Sikhs">Sikhs</a> in <a href="Hangu_District%2C_Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Hangu District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa">Hangu district</a> stated they were being pressured to convert to Islam by Yaqoob Khan, the assistant commissioner of <a href="Tall_Tehsil" class="mw-redirect" title="Tall Tehsil">Tall Tehsil</a>, in December 2017. However, the Deputy Commissioner of Hangu Shahid Mehmood denied it occurred and claimed that Sikhs were offended during a conversation with Yaqub though it was not intentional.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a>

Many Hindu girls living in Pakistan are kidnapped, forcibly converted and married to Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> According to another report from the Movement for Solidarity and Peace, about 1,000 non-Muslim girls are converted to Islam each year in Pakistan.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> According to the Amarnath Motumal, the vice chairperson of the <a href="Human_Rights_Commission_of_Pakistan" title="Human Rights Commission of Pakistan">Human Rights Commission of Pakistan</a>, every month, an estimated 20 or more Hindu girls are abducted and converted, although exact figures are impossible to gather.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> In 2014 alone, 265 legal cases of forced conversion were reported mostly involving Hindu girls.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a>

A total of 57 Hindus converted in <a href="Pasrur" title="Pasrur">Pasrur</a> during May 14–19. On May 14, 35 Hindus of the same family were forced to convert by their employer because his sales dropped after Muslims started boycotting his eatable items as they were prepared by Hindus as well as their persecution by the Muslim employees of neighbouring shops according to their relatives. Since the impoverished Hindu had no other way to earn and needed to keep the job to survive, they converted. 14 members of another family converted on May 17 since no one was employing them, later another Hindu man and his family of eight under pressure from Muslims to avoid their land being grabbed.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a>

In 2017, the Sikh community in Hangu district of Pakistan's <a href="Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa">Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa</a> province alleged that they were "being forced to convert to Islam" by a government official. Farid Chand Singh, who filed the complaint, has claimed that Assistant Commissioner Tehsil Tall Yaqoob Khan was allegedly forcing Sikhs to convert to Islam and the residents of Doaba area are being tortured religiously.<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> According to reports, about 60 Sikhs of Doaba had demanded security from the administration.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a>

Many Hindus voluntarily convert to Islam in order to acquire Watan Cards and National Identification Cards. These converts are also given land and money. For example, 428 poor Hindus in Matli were converted between 2009 and 2011 by the Madrassa Baitul Islam, a <a href="Deobandi" class="mw-redirect" title="Deobandi">Deobandi</a> seminary in Matli, which pays off the debts of Hindus converting to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> Another example is the conversion of 250 Hindus to Islam in Chohar Jamali area in <a href="Thatta" title="Thatta">Thatta</a>.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> Conversions are also carried out by Ex Hindu Baba Deen Mohammad Shaikh mission which converted 108,000 people to Islam since 1989.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a>

Within Pakistan, the southern province of Sindh had over 1,000 forced conversions of Christian and Hindu girls according to the annual report of the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan in 2018. According to victims' families and activists, <a href="Abdul_Haq_(politician)" title="Abdul Haq (politician)">Mian Abdul Haq</a>, who is a local political and religious leader in Sindh, has been accused of being responsible for forced conversions of girls within the province.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a>

More than 100 Hindus in Sindh converted to Islam in June 2020 to escape discrimination and economic pressures. Islamic charities and clerics offer incentives of jobs or land to impoverished minorities on the condition that they convert. <a href="New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a> summarised the view of Hindu groups that these seemingly voluntary conversions "take place under such economic duress that they are tantamount to a forced conversion anyway."<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a>

In October 2020, the Pakistani High Court upheld the validity of a forced marriage between 44-year-old Ali Azhar and 13-year-old Christian Arzoo Raja. Raja was abducted by Azhar, forcibly wed to Azhar and then forcibly converted to Islam by Azhar.<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> The ruling was overturned a month later, and Raja was returned to her home, with Azhar arrested.<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> Pakistan has been found in breach of its international commitments to safeguard non-Muslim girls from exploitation by influential factions and criminal elements, as forced conversions have become commonplace within the nation. This concerning trend is on the rise, notably observed in the districts of Tharparkar, Umerkot, and Mirpur Khas in Sindh.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indonesia">Indonesia</h4></div>

In 2012, over 1000 Catholic children in <a href="East_Timor" class="mw-redirect" title="East Timor">East Timor</a>, removed from their families, were reported to being held in Indonesia without consent of their parents, forcibly converted to Islam, educated in Islamic schools and naturalized.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> Other reports claim forced conversion of minority <a href="Ahmadiyya" title="Ahmadiyya">Ahmadiyya</a> sect Muslims to Sunni Islam, with the use of violence.<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a>

In 2001 the <a href="Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesian</a> army evacuated hundreds of Christian refugees from the remote <a href="Kesui" class="mw-redirect" title="Kesui">Kesui</a> and <a href="Teor_(island)" title="Teor (island)">Teor</a> islands in <a href="Maluku_(province)" title="Maluku (province)">Maluku</a> after the refugees stated that they had been forced to convert to Islam. According to reports, some of the men had been <a href="Forced_circumcision" title="Forced circumcision">circumcised against their will</a>, and a paramilitary group involved in the incident confirmed that circumcisions had taken place while denying any element of coercion.<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a>

In 2017, many members of the <a href="Orang_Rimba" class="mw-redirect" title="Orang Rimba">Orang Rimba</a> tribe, especially children, were being forced to renounce their folk religion and convert to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Genocide_of_Yazidis_by_ISIL" class="mw-redirect" title="Genocide of Yazidis by ISIL">Genocide of Yazidis by ISIL</a>, <a href="Persecution_of_Yazidis_by_Muslims" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of Yazidis by Muslims">Persecution of Yazidis by Muslims</a>, <a href="Persecution_of_Christians_by_ISIL" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of Christians by ISIL">Persecution of Christians by ISIL</a>, <a href="Persecution_of_Shias_by_ISIL" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of Shias by ISIL">Persecution of Shias by ISIL</a>, <a href="2015_kidnapping_and_beheading_of_Copts_in_Libya" class="mw-redirect" title="2015 kidnapping and beheading of Copts in Libya">2015 kidnapping and beheading of Copts in Libya</a>, and <a href="Abduction_and_forced_conversion_of_Coptic_women" class="mw-redirect" title="Abduction and forced conversion of Coptic women">Abduction and forced conversion of Coptic women</a></div>

There have been a number of reports of attempts to forcibly convert religious minorities in <a href="Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>. The <a href="Yazidi" class="mw-redirect" title="Yazidi">Yazidi</a> people of northern Iraq, who follow an ethnoreligious syncretic faith, have been threatened with forced conversion by the <a href="Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant">Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant</a>, who consider their practices to be <a href="Satanism" title="Satanism">Satanism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> UN investigators have reported mass killings of Yazidi men and boys who refused to convert to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> In Baghdad, hundreds of <a href="Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrian</a> Christians fled their homes in 2007 when a local extremist group announced that they had to convert to Islam, pay the <a href="Jizya" title="Jizya">jizya</a> or die.<a href="#cite_note-Radio_National-201">[201]</a> In March 2007, the BBC reported that people in the <a href="Mandaeans" title="Mandaeans">Mandaean</a> ethnic and religious minority in <a href="Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> alleged that they were being targeted by <a href="Islamist" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamist">Islamist</a> insurgents, who offered them the choice of conversion or death.<a href="#cite_note-news.bbc.co.uk-202">[202]</a>

In 2006, two journalists of the Fox News Network were kidnapped at gunpoint in the <a href="Gaza_Strip" title="Gaza Strip">Gaza Strip</a> by a previously unknown militant group. After being forced to read statements on videotape proclaiming that they had converted to Islam, they were released by their captors.<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a>

Allegations of <a href="Coptic_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic Christian">Coptic Christian</a> girls being forced to marry Arab Muslim men and convert to Islam in Egypt have been reported by a number of news and advocacy organizations<a href="#cite_note-Shanahan-204">[204]</a><a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> and have sparked public protests.<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> According to a 2009 report by the US State Department, observers have found it extremely difficult to determine whether compulsion was used, and in recent years no such cases have been independently verified.<a href="#cite_note-us-state-dept-208">[208]</a>

<a href="Copts" title="Copts">Coptic</a> women and girls are abducted, <a href="Forced_religious_conversions_in_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced religious conversions in Egypt">forced to convert to Islam</a> and marry Muslim men.<a href="#cite_note-bbcforcedmarriage-209">[209]</a> In 2009, the Washington, D.C.–based group <a href="Christian_Solidarity_International" title="Christian Solidarity International">Christian Solidarity International</a> published a study of the abductions and <a href="Forced_marriage" title="Forced marriage">forced marriages</a> and the anguish felt by the young women because returning to Christianity is against the law. Further allegations of organised abduction of Copts, trafficking and police collusion continue in 2017.<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Grooming_gang" class="mw-redirect" title="Grooming gang">Grooming gang</a> and <a href="Child_sexual_abuse_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Child sexual abuse in the United Kingdom">Child sexual abuse in the United Kingdom</a></div>

According to the UK prison officers' union, some Muslim prisoners in the UK have been forcibly converting fellow inmates to Islam in prisons.<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> An independent government report published in 2023 found that there have been multiple cases of Muslim gangs threatening non-Muslim prisoners to "convert or get hurt".<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a>

In 2007, a Sikh girl's family claimed that she had been forcibly converted to Islam, and they received a police guard after being attacked by an armed gang, although the "Police said no one was injured in the incident".<a href="#cite_note-bm2007-213">[213]</a>

In response to these news stories, an open letter to Sir Ian Blair, signed by ten Hindu academics, argued that claims that Hindu and Sikh girls were being forcefully converted were "part of an arsenal of myths propagated by right-wing Hindu supremacist organisations in India".<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> The <a href="Muslim_Council_of_Britain" title="Muslim Council of Britain">Muslim Council of Britain</a> issued a press release pointing out there is a "lack of evidence" of any forced conversions and suggested it is an underhand attempt to smear the British Muslim population.<a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a>

An academic paper by Katy Sian published in the journal South Asian Popular Culture in 2011 explored the question of how "'forced' conversion narratives" arose around the <a href="Sikhism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Sikhism in the United Kingdom">Sikh diaspora in the United Kingdom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Forced-216">[216]</a> Sian, who reports that claims of conversion through courtship on campuses are widespread in the UK, indicates that rather than relying on actual evidence they primarily rest on the word of "a friend of a friend" or on personal <a href="Anecdote" title="Anecdote">anecdote</a>. According to Sian, the narrative is similar to accusations of "<a href="Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">white slavery</a>" lodged against the Jewish community and foreigners to the UK and the US, with the former having ties to <a href="Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitism</a> that mirror the <a href="Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islamophobia</a> betrayed by the modern narrative. Sian expanded on these views in 2013's Mistaken Identities, Forced Conversions, and Postcolonial Formations.<a href="#cite_note-Sian2013-217">[217]</a>

In 2018, a report by a Sikh activist organisation, Sikh Youth UK, entitled "The Religiously Aggravated Sexual Exploitation of Young Sikh Women Across the UK" made allegations of similarities between the case of Sikh Women and the Rotherham child sexual exploitation scandal.<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a> However, in 2019, this report was criticised by researchers and an official UK government report led by two Sikh academics for false and misleading information.<a href="#cite_note-CockbainTufail2020-219">[219]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jagbir_Jhutti-Johal;_Sunny_Hundal_(August_2019)p15-220">[220]</a> It noted: "The RASE report lacks solid data, methodological transparency and rigour. It is filled instead with sweeping generalisations and poorly substantiated claims around the nature and scale of abuse of Sikh girls and causal factors driving it. It appealed heavily to historical tensions between Sikhs and Muslims and narratives of honour in a way that seemed designed to whip up fear and hate".<a href="#cite_note-Jagbir_Jhutti-Johal;_Sunny_Hundal_(August_2019)p15-220">[220]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Judaism">Judaism</h2></div>

Under the <a href="Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmonean Kingdom</a>, the <a href="Idumea" class="mw-redirect" title="Idumea">Idumeans</a> were forced to convert to Judaism, by threat of exile or death, depending on the source.<a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a>

In Eusebíus, Christianity, and Judaism, <a href="Harold_W._Attridge" title="Harold W. Attridge">Harold W. Attridge</a> claims that <a href="Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a>' account was accurate and that <a href="Alexander_Jannaeus" title="Alexander Jannaeus">Alexander Jannaeus</a> (around 80 BCE) demolished the city of <a href="Pella%2C_Jordan" title="Pella, Jordan">Pella</a> in <a href="Moab" title="Moab">Moab</a>, because the inhabitants refused to adopt Jewish national customs.<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a> <a href="Maurice_Sartre" title="Maurice Sartre">Maurice Sartre</a> writes of the "policy of forced Judaization adopted by <a href="John_Hyrcanus" title="John Hyrcanus">Hyrcanos</a>, <a href="Aristobulus_I" title="Aristobulus I">Aristobulus I</a> and <a href="Jannaeus" class="mw-redirect" title="Jannaeus">Jannaeus</a>", who offered "the conquered peoples a choice between expulsion or conversion,"<a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a> William Horbury postulates that an existing small Jewish population in Lower Galilee was massively expanded by forced conversion around 104 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> Yigal Levin, conversely, argues that many non-Jewish communities, such as <a href="Idumeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Idumeans">Idumeans</a>, voluntarily assimilated in Hasmonean Judea, based on archaeological evidence and cultural affinities between the groups.<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a>

In 2009, the <a href="BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a> claimed that in 524 CE the <a href="Himyarite_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Himyarite Kingdom">Himyarite Kingdom</a>, who had adopted <a href="Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> as the <a href="De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a> state religion two centuries earlier, led by King Yusuf <a href="Dhu_Nuwas" title="Dhu Nuwas">Dhu Nuwas</a>, had offered residents of a village in what is now <a href="Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> the choice between conversion to Judaism or death, and that 20,000 Christians had then been massacred.<a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> During the reign of Dhu Nuwas, a political-power transferring process began and during it, the Himyarite kingdom became a tributary of the <a href="Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Kingdom of Aksum</a>, which had adopted <a href="Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> as its de facto state religion two centuries earlier. This process was completed by the time of the reign of Ma'dīkarib Yafur (519-522), a Christian who was appointed by the Aksumites. A coup d'état ensued, with Dhu Nuwas assuming authority after the killing of the Aksumite garrison in <a href="Zafar%2C_Yemen" title="Zafar, Yemen">Zafar</a>. A general was sent against <a href="Najran" title="Najran">Najrān</a>, a predominantly Christian oasis, with a good number of Jews, who refused to recognize his authority. The general blocked the caravan route which connected Najrān with Eastern Arabia and he also persecuted the Christian population of Najrān.<a href="#cite_note-bowersock-228">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> Dhu Nuwas campaign eventually killed between 11,500 and 14,000, and took a similar number of prisoners.<a href="#cite_note-RobinCJ_(2012)-231">[231]</a>

Ethiopian Jews (also known as <a href="Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a>) were forcibly converted to mainstream <a href="Rabbinical_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rabbinical Judaism">Rabbinical Judaism</a> following their covert evacuation to Israel during <a href="Operation_Moses" title="Operation Moses">Operation Moses</a> and <a href="Operation_Solomon" title="Operation Solomon">Operation Solomon</a>. Their native form of Judaism, commonly called <a href="Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a>, is looked down upon by the Israeli government and the <a href="Chief_Rabbinate_of_Israel" title="Chief Rabbinate of Israel">Chief Rabbinate of Israel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a>

Other instances of forced conversion to Judaism are unknown.<a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a> Forced conversion has been forbidden for over 1000 years and forced conversions are considered invalid.<a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Atheism">Atheism</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eastern_Bloc">Eastern Bloc</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Soviet_anti-religious_legislation" title="Soviet anti-religious legislation">Soviet anti-religious legislation</a></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Persecution of Christians in the Eastern Bloc">Persecution of Christians in the Eastern Bloc</a></div>

Under the doctrine of <a href="State_atheism" title="State atheism">state atheism</a> in the <a href="Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, there was a "government-sponsored program of forced conversion to <a href="Marxist-Leninist_atheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist-Leninist atheism">atheism</a>" conducted by <a href="Communism" title="Communism">communists</a>.<a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a><a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a><a href="#cite_note-Adappur2000-239">[239]</a> This program included the overarching objective to establish not only a fundamentally materialistic conception of the universe, but to foster "direct and open criticism of the religious outlook" by means of establishing an "anti-religious trend" across the entire school.<a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a> The <a href="Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="Russian Orthodox Church">Russian Orthodox Church</a>, for centuries the strongest of all Orthodox Churches, was violently suppressed.<a href="#cite_note-Viking_p.494-241">[241]</a> Revolutionary leader <a href="Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a> wrote that every religious idea and every idea of <a href="God" title="God">God</a> "is unutterable vileness... of the most dangerous kind, 'contagion of the most abominable kind".<a href="#cite_note-MartinAmis-242">[242]</a> Many priests were killed and imprisoned. Thousands of churches were closed, some turned into hospitals. In 1925, the government founded the <a href="League_of_Militant_Atheists" title="League of Militant Atheists">League of Militant Atheists</a> to intensify the persecution.<a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a>

Christopher Marsh, a professor at <a href="Baylor_University" title="Baylor University">Baylor University</a> writes that "Tracing the social nature of religion from Schleiermacher and Feurbach to Marx, Engels, and Lenin... the idea of religion as a social product evolved to the point of policies aimed at the forced conversion of believers to atheism."<a href="#cite_note-Marsh2011-244">[244]</a>

Jonathan Blake of the Department of Political Science at <a href="Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> elucidates the history of this practice in the USSR, stating that:<a href="#cite_note-Blake2014-245">[245]</a>

<blockquote class="templatequote">God, however, did not simply vanish after the Bolshevik revolution. Soviet authorities relied heavily on coercion to spread their idea of scientific atheism. This included confiscating church goods and property, forcibly closing religious institutions and executing religious leaders and believers or sending them to the <a href="Gulag" title="Gulag">gulag</a>... Later, the United States passed the <a href="Jackson%E2%80%93Vanik_amendment" title="Jackson–Vanik amendment">Jackson–Vanik amendment</a> which harmed US–Soviet trade relations until the USSR permitted the emigration of religious minorities, primarily Jews. Despite the threat from coreligionists abroad, however, the Soviet Union engaged in forced atheism from its earliest days.<a href="#cite_note-Blake2014-245">[245]</a></blockquote>

Across <a href="Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a> following <a href="World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the parts of the <a href="Nazi_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi Empire">Nazi Empire</a> conquered by the Soviet <a href="Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a>, and Yugoslavia became one party communist states and the project of coercive conversion continued.<a href="#cite_note-246">[246]</a><a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a> The Soviet Union ended its war time truce against the Russian Orthodox Church, and extended its persecutions to the newly communist Eastern bloc: "In <a href="Polish_anti-religious_campaign" title="Polish anti-religious campaign">Poland</a>, Hungary, Lithuania and other Eastern European countries, Catholic leaders who were unwilling to be silent were denounced, publicly humiliated or imprisoned by the communists. Leaders of the national Orthodox Churches in <a href="Anti-religious_campaign_of_Communist_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-religious campaign of Communist Romania">Romania</a> and Bulgaria had to be cautious and submissive", wrote Blainey.<a href="#cite_note-Viking_p.494-241">[241]</a> While the churches were generally not as severely treated as they had been in the USSR, nearly all their schools and many of their churches were closed, and they lost their formerly prominent roles in public life. Children were taught atheism, and clergy were imprisoned by the thousands.<a href="#cite_note-Viking_p.508-248">[248]</a>

In the <a href="Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a>, Christian churches, Jewish synagogues and Islamic mosques were forcibly "converted into museums of atheism."<a href="#cite_note-FranklinWiddis2006-249">[249]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bevan2016-250">[250]</a> Historical essayist <a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrei_Brezianu" class="extiw external" title="ro:Andrei Brezianu">Andrei Brezianu</a> expounds upon this situation, specifically in the <a href="Socialist_Republic_of_Romania" title="Socialist Republic of Romania">Socialist Republic of Romania</a>, writing that scientific atheism was "aggressively applied to Moldova, immediately after the 1940 annexation, when churches were profaned, clergy assaulted, and signs and public symbols of religion were prohibited"; he provides an example of this phenomenon, further writing that "St. Theodora Church in downtown Chişinău was converted into the city's Museum of Scientific Atheism".<a href="#cite_note-BrezianuSpânu2010-236">[236]</a> Marxist-Leninist regimes treated religious believers as subversives or abnormal, sometimes relegating them to psychiatric hospitals and reeducation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGrath200646-251">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-Froese2008-252">[252]</a> Nevertheless, historian Emily Baran writes that "some accounts suggest the conversion to militant atheism did not always end individuals' existential questions".<a href="#cite_note-253">[253]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_Revolution">French Revolution</h3></div>

During the <a href="French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, a <a href="Dechristianisation_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Dechristianisation of France during the French Revolution">campaign of dechristianization</a> happened which included removal and destruction of religious objects from places of worship; English librarian <a href="Thomas_Hartwell_Horne" title="Thomas Hartwell Horne">Thomas Hartwell Horne</a> and biblical scholar <a href="Samuel_Davidson" title="Samuel Davidson">Samuel Davidson</a> write that "churches were converted into 'temples of reason,' in which atheistical and licentious homilies were substituted for the proscribed service".<a href="#cite_note-HorneDavidson2013-254">[254]</a><a href="#cite_note-255">[255]</a><a href="#cite_note-256">[256]</a><a href="#cite_note-257">[257]</a>

Unlike later establishments of state atheism by <a href="Communist_state" title="Communist state">communist regimes</a>, the French Revolutionary experiment was short (seven months), incomplete and inconsistent.<a href="#cite_note-258">[258]</a> Even though it was brief, the French experiment was particularly notable because it influenced atheists such as <a href="Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Ludwig Feuerbach</a>, <a href="Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a> and <a href="Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGrath200646-251">[251]</a>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Antireligious_campaigns_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Antireligious campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party">Antireligious campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party</a></div>

The emergence of <a href="Communist_state" title="Communist state">communist states</a> across <a href="East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a> after World War Two saw religion purged by atheist regimes across <a href="China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a> and much of <a href="Indochina" class="mw-redirect" title="Indochina">Indo-China</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Geoffrey_Blainey_p.508-259">[259]</a> In 1949, China became a communist state under the leadership of <a href="Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a>'s <a href="Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a>. Prior to this takeover, China itself was previously a cradle of religious thought since ancient times, being the birthplace of <a href="Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> and <a href="Daoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Daoism">Daoism</a>, and Buddhists arrived in the first century CE. Under Mao, China became <a href="State_atheism" title="State atheism">an officially atheist state</a>, and even though some religious practices were permitted to continue under State supervision, religious groups which are considered a threat to law and order have been suppressed—such as <a href="Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a> from 1959 and <a href="Falun_Gong" title="Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a> in recent years.<a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a> Religious schools and social institutions were closed, foreign missionaries were expelled, and local religious practices were discouraged.<a href="#cite_note-Geoffrey_Blainey_p.508-259">[259]</a> During the <a href="Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a>, Mao instigated "struggles" against the <a href="Four_Olds" title="Four Olds">Four Olds</a>: "old ideas, customs, culture, and habits of mind".<a href="#cite_note-261">[261]</a> In 1999, the Communist Party launched a three-year drive to promote atheism in Tibet, saying that intensifying atheist propaganda is "especially important for Tibet because atheism plays an extremely important role in promoting economic construction, social advancement and socialist spiritual civilization in the region".<a href="#cite_note-262">[262]</a>

As of November 2018, in present-day China, the government has detained many people in <a href="Xinjiang_re-education_camps" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinjiang re-education camps">internment camps</a>, "where <a href="Uyghurs" title="Uyghurs">Uighur Muslims</a> are remade into atheist Chinese subjects".<a href="#cite_note-Beydoun2018-263">[263]</a> For children who were forcibly taken away from their parents, the Chinese government has established "orphanages" with the aim of "converting future generations of Uighur Muslim children into loyal subjects who embrace atheism".<a href="#cite_note-Beydoun2018-263">[263]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Revolutionary_Mexico">Revolutionary Mexico</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Plutarco_El%C3%ADas_Calles" title="Plutarco Elías Calles">Plutarco Elías Calles</a>, <a href="Calles_Law" title="Calles Law">Calles Law</a>, and <a href="Cristero_War" title="Cristero War">Cristero War</a></div>

Articles 3, 5, 24, 27, and 130 of the <a href="Constitution_of_Mexico" title="Constitution of Mexico">Mexican Constitution of 1917</a> as originally enacted were <a href="Anti-clericalism" title="Anti-clericalism">anticlerical</a> and enormously restricted religious freedoms.<a href="#cite_note-lawreview.byu.edu-264">[264]</a> At first the anticlerical provisions were only sporadically enforced, but when President <a href="Plutarco_El%C3%ADas_Calles" title="Plutarco Elías Calles">Plutarco Elías Calles</a> took office, he enforced the provisions strictly.<a href="#cite_note-lawreview.byu.edu-264">[264]</a> Calles' Mexico has been characterized as an atheist state<a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a> and his program as being one to eradicate religion in Mexico.<a href="#cite_note-266">[266]</a>

All religions had their properties expropriated, and these became part of government wealth. There was a forced expulsion of foreign clergy and the seizure of Church properties.<a href="#cite_note-ilstu.edu-267">[267]</a> Article 27 prohibited any future acquisition of such property by the churches, and prohibited religious corporations and ministers from

establishing or directing primary schools.<a href="#cite_note-ilstu.edu-267">[267]</a> This second prohibition was sometimes interpreted to mean that the Church could not give religious instruction to children within the churches on Sundays, seen as destroying the ability of Catholics to be educated in their own religion.<a href="#cite_note-268">[268]</a>

The Constitution of 1917 also closed and forbade the existence of monastic orders (article 5), forbade any religious activity outside of church buildings (now owned by the government), and mandated that such religious activity would be overseen by the government (article 24).<a href="#cite_note-ilstu.edu-267">[267]</a>

On June 14, 1926, President Calles enacted <a href="Anticlerical" class="mw-redirect" title="Anticlerical">anticlerical</a> legislation known formally as The Law Reforming the Penal Code and unofficially as the <a href="Calles_Law" title="Calles Law">Calles Law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Joes,_Anthony_James_p._70-269">[269]</a> His <a href="Anti-Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Catholic">anti-Catholic</a> actions included outlawing religious orders, depriving the Church of property rights and depriving the clergy of civil liberties, including their right to a trial by jury (in cases involving anti-clerical laws) and the right to vote.<a href="#cite_note-Joes,_Anthony_James_p._70-269">[269]</a><a href="#cite_note-THE_CRISTERO_REBELLION_–_PART_1-270">[270]</a> Catholic antipathy towards Calles was enhanced because of his vocal atheism.<a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-271">[271]</a>

Due to the strict enforcement of anti-clerical laws, people in strongly <a href="Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a> areas, especially the states of <a href="Jalisco" title="Jalisco">Jalisco</a>, <a href="Zacatecas" title="Zacatecas">Zacatecas</a>, <a href="Guanajuato" title="Guanajuato">Guanajuato</a>, <a href="Colima" title="Colima">Colima</a> and <a href="Michoac%C3%A1n" title="Michoacán">Michoacán</a>, began to oppose him, and this opposition led to the <a href="Cristero_War" title="Cristero War">Cristero War</a> from 1926 to 1929, which was characterized by brutal atrocities on both sides. Some Cristeros applied terrorist tactics, while the Mexican government persecuted the clergy, killing suspected Cristeros and supporters and often retaliating against innocent individuals.<a href="#cite_note-272">[272]</a> In <a href="Tabasco" title="Tabasco">Tabasco</a> state, the so-called "<a href="Red_Shirts_(Mexico)" title="Red Shirts (Mexico)">Red Shirts</a>" began to act.

A truce was negotiated with the assistance of U.S. Ambassador <a href="Dwight_Whitney_Morrow" class="mw-redirect" title="Dwight Whitney Morrow">Dwight Whitney Morrow</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Blood-Drenched_Altars-273">[273]</a> Calles, however, did not abide by the terms of the truce – in violation of its terms, he had approximately 500 Cristero leaders and 5,000 other Cristeros shot, frequently in their homes in front of their spouses and children.<a href="#cite_note-Blood-Drenched_Altars-273">[273]</a> Particularly offensive to Catholics after the supposed truce was Calles' insistence on a complete state monopoly on education, suppressing all Catholic education and introducing "socialist" education in its place: "We must enter and take possession of the mind of childhood, the mind of youth".<a href="#cite_note-Blood-Drenched_Altars-273">[273]</a> The persecution continued as Calles maintained control under his <a href="Maximato" title="Maximato">Maximato</a> and did not relent until 1940, when President <a href="Manuel_%C3%81vila_Camacho" title="Manuel Ávila Camacho">Manuel Ávila Camacho</a>, a believing Catholic, took office.<a href="#cite_note-Blood-Drenched_Altars-273">[273]</a> This attempt to indoctrinate the youth in atheism was begun in 1934 by amending Article 3 to the <a href="Mexican_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Mexican Constitution">Mexican Constitution</a> to eradicate religion by mandating "socialist education", which "in addition to removing all religious doctrine" would "combat fanaticism and prejudices", "build[ing] in the youth a rational and exact concept of the universe and of social life".<a href="#cite_note-lawreview.byu.edu-264">[264]</a> In 1946 this "socialist education" was removed from the constitution and the document returned to the less egregious generalized secular education.

The effects of the war on the Church were profound. Between 1926 and 1934 at least 40 priests were killed.<a href="#cite_note-Blood-Drenched_Altars-273">[273]</a> Where there were 4,500 priests operating within the country before the rebellion, in 1934 there were only 334 priests licensed by the government to serve fifteen million people, the rest having been eliminated by emigration, expulsion, and assassination.<a href="#cite_note-Blood-Drenched_Altars-273">[273]</a><a href="#cite_note-274">[274]</a> By 1935, 17 states had no priest at all.<a href="#cite_note-275">[275]</a>

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<ul><li><a href="Al-Baqara_256" title="Al-Baqara 256">Al-Baqara 256</a></li>

<li><a href="Criticism_of_atheism" title="Criticism of atheism">Criticism of atheism</a></li>

<li><a href="Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism of religion</a></li>

<li><a href="Crypto-Christianity" title="Crypto-Christianity">Crypto-Christianity</a></li>

<li><a href="Crypto-Islam" title="Crypto-Islam">Crypto-Islam</a></li>

<li><a href="Crypto-Judaism" title="Crypto-Judaism">Crypto-Judaism</a></li>

<li><a href="Crypto-paganism" title="Crypto-paganism">Crypto-paganism</a></li>

<li><a href="Cuius_regio%2C_eius_religio" title="Cuius regio, eius religio">Cuius regio, eius religio</a></li>

<li><a href="Forced_conversion_of_minority_girls_in_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced conversion of minority girls in Pakistan">Forced conversion of minority girls in Pakistan</a></li>

<li><a href="Forced_monasticism" title="Forced monasticism">Forced monasticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Forced_circumcision" title="Forced circumcision">Forced circumcision</a></li>

<li><a href="Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a></li>

<li><a href="Kakure_Kirishitan" title="Kakure Kirishitan">Kakure Kirishitan</a></li>

<li><a href="Kirchenkampf" title="Kirchenkampf">Kirchenkampf</a></li>

<li><a href="Love_jihad_conspiracy_theory" title="Love jihad conspiracy theory">Love jihad conspiracy theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">Religious conversion</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Religious discrimination</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_fanaticism" title="Religious fanaticism">Religious fanaticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Religious intolerance</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">Religious segregation</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Religious violence</a></li>

<li><a href="Sectarian_violence" title="Sectarian violence">Sectarian violence</a></li>

<li><a href="Supremacism#Religious" title="Supremacism">Supremacism#Religious</a></li>

<li><a href="State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li>

<li><a href="Vorpahavak" title="Vorpahavak">Vorpahavak</a></li></ul></div>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> see e.g. John Coffey, Persecution and Toleration on Protestant England 1558–1689, 2000, p.22

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<li id="cite_note-CHARLEMAGNE-16"><a href="#cite_ref-CHARLEMAGNE_16-0">^</a> For the Massacre of Verden, see Barbero, Alessandro (2004).

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<li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMendonça2002" class="citation book cs1">Mendonça, Délio de (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Mh3kKf0VSfQC&pg=PA397">Conversions and Citizenry: Goa Under Portugal, 1510-1610</a>. Concept Publishing Company. p. 397. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-81-7022-960-5</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Machado-38"><a href="#cite_ref-Machado_38-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMachado_Prabhu1999" class="citation book cs1">Machado Prabhu, Alan (1999). Sarasvati's Children: A History of the Mangalorean Christians. I.J.A. Publications.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFde_Souza1989" class="citation book cs1">de Souza, Teotonio (1989). Essays in Goan History. Concept Publishing Company.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Ramet2011-40"><a href="#cite_ref-Ramet2011_40-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSabrina_P._Ramet2011" class="citation book cs1">Sabrina P. Ramet (31 October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gkiEDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA237">Serbia and the Serbs in World War Two</a>. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 237–. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-230-34781-6</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Yeomans2013-41"><a href="#cite_ref-Yeomans2013_41-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRory_Yeomans2013" class="citation book cs1">Rory Yeomans (April 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Yxv4-iqVe2wC&pg=PA21">Visions of Annihilation: The Ustasha Regime and the Cultural Politics of Fascism, 1941–1945</a>. University of Pittsburgh Pre. pp. 21–. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8229-7793-3</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-revert-42"><a href="#cite_ref-revert_42-0">^</a> the word revert is used in this context; not convert; see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4413900">Older than the Church: Christianity and Caste in The God of Small Things India</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180326183522/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4413900">Archived</a> 2018-03-26 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by A Sekhar;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2010/mar/11/proselytism-on-the-table">Washington Times article</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100925055400/http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2010/mar/11/proselytism-on-the-table/">Archived</a> 2010-09-25 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-30429118">"Indian Agra Muslim fear conversions to Hinduism"</a>. BBC News. 2014-12-11. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150517172536/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-30429118">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-05-17. Retrieved May 5, 2015.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150902194718/https://www.christiantoday.com/article/hindu.extremists.threaten.to.kill.christians.in.india.if.they.utter.the.name.of.christ/63567.htm">"Hindu extremists threaten to kill Christians in India if they 'utter the name of Christ'"</a>. September 2015. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.christiantoday.com/article/hindu.extremists.threaten.to.kill.christians.in.india.if.they.utter.the.name.of.christ/63567.htm">the original</a> on 2 September 2015.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240222204059/https://fsspx.news/en/news/india-accelerates-forced-conversions-42406">"India Accelerates Forced Conversions | FSSPX News"</a>. 13 February 2024. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fsspx.news/en/news/india-accelerates-forced-conversions-42406">the original</a> on 22 February 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230524053837/https://www.ucanews.com/amp/christians-face-conversion-threat-in-riot-hit-indian-state/101401">"Christians face conversion threat in riot-hit Indian state - UCA News"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ucanews.com/news/christians-face-conversion-threat-in-riot-hit-indian-state/101401">the original</a> on 24 May 2023.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230222072516/https://www.newsclick.in/Misuse-PESA-Act-Ghar-Wapsi-Chhattisgarh-Tribal-Christians-Report">"'Misuse' of PESA Act in Ghar Wapsi of Chhattisgarh Tribal Christians: Report"</a>. Newsclick. 21 February 2023. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newsclick.in/Misuse-PESA-Act-Ghar-Wapsi-Chhattisgarh-Tribal-Christians-Report">the original</a> on 22 February 2023.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFChamberlain2008" class="citation web cs1">Chamberlain, Gethin (18 October 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160408003257/https://amp.theguardian.com/world/2008/oct/19/orissa-violence-india-christianity-hinduism">"Convert or we will kill you, Hindu lynch mobs tell fleeing Christians | India | the Guardian"</a>. The Observer. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/oct/19/orissa-violence-india-christianity-hinduism">the original</a> on 8 April 2016.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFThakur2015" class="citation news cs1">Thakur, Udit (29 January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170605031925/https://www.thedailybeast.com/are-indias-christians-and-muslims-forced-to-become-hindus">"Are India's Christians and Muslims Forced to Become Hindus?"</a>. The Daily Beast. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thedailybeast.com/are-indias-christians-and-muslims-forced-to-become-hindus">the original</a> on 5 June 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231224022213/https://qantara.de/en/article/conversion-christians-and-muslims-india-homecoming-or-forced-conversion">"Conversion of Christians and Muslims in India: Homecoming or forced conversion? | Qantara.de"</a>. 16 March 2015. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://qantara.de/en/article/conversion-christians-and-muslims-india-homecoming-or-forced-conversion">the original</a> on 24 December 2023.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20250614095530/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-30573796">"India parliament uproar over conversions by Hindu groups"</a>. BBC News. 22 December 2014. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-30573796">the original</a> on 14 June 2025.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.catholicherald.co.uk/news/2014/12/30/cardinal-protests-against-forced-conversion-of-christians-to-hinduism/">"CatholicHerald.co.uk » Cardinal protests against forced conversions to Hinduism"</a>. Catholic Herald. 2014-12-30. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150506134936/http://www.catholicherald.co.uk/news/2014/12/30/cardinal-protests-against-forced-conversion-of-christians-to-hinduism/">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-05-06. Retrieved May 5, 2015.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171030210925/https://www.asianews.it/news-en/Nationalist-party:-India-is-not-a-country-for-Christians-42188.html">"Nationalist party: India is not a country for Christians"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.asianews.it/news-en/Nationalist-party:-India-is-not-a-country-for-Christians-42188.html">the original</a> on 30 October 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20250614100851/https://www.genocidewatch.com/single-post/hindu-extremists-threaten-genocide-against-christians">"Hindu Extremists Threaten Genocide Against Christians"</a>. 24 February 2025. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.genocidewatch.com/single-post/hindu-extremists-threaten-genocide-against-christians">the original</a> on 14 June 2025.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220112155521/https://politicstoday.org/the-hindutva-war-on-christians-in-india/">"The Hindutva War on Christians in India"</a>. 12 January 2022. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://politicstoday.org/the-hindutva-war-on-christians-in-india/">the original</a> on 12 January 2022.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220115003438/https://www.cnn.com/2022/01/14/asia/india-hindu-extremist-groups-intl-hnk-dst/index.html">"India's Hindu extremists are calling for genocide against Muslims. Why is little being done to stop them?"</a>. <a href="CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a>. 15 January 2022. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnn.com/2022/01/14/asia/india-hindu-extremist-groups-intl-hnk-dst/index.html">the original</a> on 2022-01-15.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220118095434/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/hindu-extremists-india-escalate-rhetoric-calls-kill-muslims-rcna12450">"Hindu extremists in India escalate rhetoric with calls to kill Muslims"</a>. <a href="NBC_News" title="NBC News">NBC News</a>. 2022-01-18. Archived from the original on 2022-01-18. Retrieved 2024-11-14.</cite><code class="cs1-code">{{cite web}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)

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<li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230927013117/https://theloop.ecpr.eu/has-the-hindu-majority-developed-a-nazi-conscience-in-india-nationalism/">"Has the Hindu majority developed a 'Nazi conscience' in India? - The Loop"</a>. 2023-09-27. Archived from the original on 2023-09-27. Retrieved 2024-11-14.</cite><code class="cs1-code">{{cite web}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)

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<li id="cite_note-Le'Expansion_Nestorienne_en_Asie-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Le'Expansion_Nestorienne_en_Asie_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Le'Expansion_Nestorienne_en_Asie_59-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFNau2013" class="citation book cs1">Nau, François (13 November 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=usPvoAEACAAJ">Le'Expansion Nestorienne en Asie</a>. Gorgias Press, LLC. pp. 106–13. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781611438321</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IvPVEb17uzkC">Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests</a>. Cambridge University Press. 30 March 1995. p. 109. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-48455-8</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Britannica-61"><a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_61-0">^</a> <cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islam">"Islam"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. New York. 17 August 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150504201633/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295507/Islam">Archived</a> from the original on 4 May 2015. Retrieved 12 January 2022.</cite><code class="cs1-code">{{cite encyclopedia}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070928010649/http://www.islam-qa.com/index.php?ref=34770&ln=eng">[1]</a> - Islam Q&A (Archived), Fatwa No. 34770

</li>

<li id="cite_note-W53-63"><a href="#cite_ref-W53_63-0">^</a> Waines (2003) "An Introduction to Islam" Cambridge University Press. p. 53

</li>

<li id="cite_note-bonner-64"><a href="#cite_ref-bonner_64-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMichael_Bonner2008" class="citation book cs1">Michael Bonner (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Qxq7eykoJgoC&pg=PA89">Jihad in Islamic History</a>. Princeton University Press. pp. 89–90. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1400827381</bdi>. <q>To begin with, there was no forced conversion, no choice between "Islam and the Sword". Islamic law, following a clear Quranic principle (2:256), prohibited any such things [...] although there have been instances of forced conversion in Islamic history, these have been exceptional.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Ira-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ira_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ira_65-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ira_65-2">c</a> <cite id="CITEREFIra_M._Lapidus" class="citation book cs1">Ira M. Lapidus. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. p. 345.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <cite class="citation book cs1">A History of Islamic Societies. Ira M. Lapidus. 1988. pp. Lapidus, 271. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0521225523</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKishori_Saran_Lal" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Kishori_Saran_Lal" class="mw-redirect" title="Kishori Saran Lal">Kishori Saran Lal</a>. "Political conditions of the Hindus under the Khaljis". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 9. <a href="Indian_History_Congress" title="Indian History Congress">Indian History Congress</a>: 232.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Bowering-68">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bowering_68-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bowering_68-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFGerhard_Bowering2009" class="citation book cs1">Gerhard Bowering, ed. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zaqgBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA128">Islamic Political Thought: An Introduction</a>. Princeton University Press. pp. 127–128. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781400866427</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-hallaq-69"><a href="#cite_ref-hallaq_69-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWael_B._Hallaq2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Wael_Hallaq" title="Wael Hallaq">Wael B. Hallaq</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eVJsAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA327">Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 327–328. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780521861472</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFParsons2000" class="citation book cs1">Parsons, L. (2000). The Druze between Palestine and Israel 1947–49. Springer. p. 2. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780230595989</bdi>. <q>With the succession of al-Zahir to the Fatimid caliphate a mass persecution (known by the Druze as the period of the mihna) of the Muwaḥḥidūn was instigated ...</q></cite>

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<li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHitti1924" class="citation book cs1">Hitti, Philip Khūri (1924). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B_YJAvND0RwC">Origins of the Druze People and Religion</a>. Forgotten Books. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-60506-068-2</bdi>. Retrieved 4 April 2012.</cite> <code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)

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<li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFC._Tucker2019" class="citation book cs1">C. Tucker, Spencer C. (2019). Middle East Conflicts from Ancient Egypt to the 21st Century: An Encyclopedia and Document Collection [4 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. pp. 364–366. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781440853531</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> Taraze Fawaz, Leila. An occasion for war: civil conflict in Lebanon and Damascus in 1860. p.63.

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<li id="cite_note-goren-74"><a href="#cite_ref-goren_74-0">^</a> Goren, Haim. Dead Sea Level: Science, Exploration and Imperial Interests in the Near East. p.95-96.

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<li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFC._Tucker2019" class="citation book cs1">C. Tucker, Spencer C. (2019). Middle East Conflicts from Ancient Egypt to the 21st Century: An Encyclopedia and Document Collection [4 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 364. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781440853531</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFZabad2017" class="citation book cs1">Zabad, Ibrahim (2017). Middle Eastern Minorities: The Impact of the Arab Spring. Routledge. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781317096726</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRichard_W._Bullient2013" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Richard W. Bullient (2013). "Conversion". In Gerhard Böwering, Patricia Crone (ed.). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-lewis2002-78">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lewis2002_78-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lewis2002_78-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFLewis2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Lewis, Bernard</a> (2002). Arabs in History. Oxford University Press (Kindle edition). p. 50.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/Ridda_Wars/">"Ridda Wars"</a>. World History Encyclopedia. 5 June 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210625174127/https://www.worldhistory.org/Ridda_Wars/">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-06-25. Retrieved 2021-06-25.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pN8TAAAAIAAJ">The Origins of the Islamic State, Being a Translation from the Arabic, Accompanied with Annotations, Geographic and Historic Notes of the Kitâb Fitûh Al-buldân of Al-Imâm Abu-l Abbâs Ahmad Ibn-Jâbir Al-Balâdhuri</a>. Columbia university. 1916. p. 103.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMoshe_Gil1992" class="citation book cs1">Moshe Gil (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tSM4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA822">A History of Palestine, 634–1099</a>. CUP Archive. p. 822. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780521404372</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> Ross Brann, Power in the Portrayal: Representations of Jews and Muslims in Eleventh- and Twelfth-Century Islamic Spain, Princeton University Press, 2009, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ox7L8lO9YnMC&pg=PA123">pp. 121–122.</a>

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<li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> A. E. Vacalopoulos. The Greek Nation, 1453–1669, New Brunswick, New Jersey, Rutgers University Press, 1976, p. 41; Vasiliki Papoulia, The Impact of Devshirme on Greek Society, in War and Society in East Central Europe, Editor—in—Chief, Bela K. Kiraly, 1982, Vol. II, pp. 561—562.

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<li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFDavid_Nicolle1995" class="citation cs2">David Nicolle (1995-05-15), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0HWKMh3p9JwC">The Janissaries</a>, Bloomsbury USA, p. 12, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781855324138</bdi></cite>

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<li id="cite_note-JE_1906-115">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JE_1906_115-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JE_1906_115-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JE_1906_115-2">c</a> <cite id="CITEREFKohlerMalter1906" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="Kaufmann_Kohler" title="Kaufmann Kohler">Kohler, Kaufmann</a>; <a href="Henry_Malter" title="Henry Malter">Malter, Henry</a> (1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/13480-shabbethai-zebi-b-mordecai">"Shabbetai Ẓevi"</a>. <a href="Jewish_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Encyclopedia">Jewish Encyclopedia</a>. <a href="Kopelman_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Kopelman Foundation">Kopelman Foundation</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070815173041/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=531&letter=S">Archived</a> from the original on 15 August 2007. Retrieved 6 October 2020. <q>At the command [of the sultan], Shabbetai was now taken from <a href="Abydos_(Hellespont)" title="Abydos (Hellespont)">Abydos</a> to <a href="Edirne" title="Edirne">Adrianople</a>, where the sultan's physician, a former Jew, advised Shabbetai to embrace Islam as the only means of saving his life. Shabbetai realized the danger of his situation and adopted the physician's advice. On the following day [...] being brought before the sultan, he cast off his Jewish garb and put a Turkish turban on his head; and thus his conversion to Islam was accomplished. The sultan was much pleased, and rewarded Shabbetai by conferring on him the title (Mahmed) "Effendi" and appointing him as his doorkeeper with a high salary. [...] To complete his acceptance of Mohammedanism, Shabbetai was ordered to <a href="Polygyny_in_Islam" title="Polygyny in Islam">take an additional wife</a>, a Mohammedan <a href="Slavery_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Islam">slave</a>, which order he obeyed. [...] Meanwhile, Shabbetai secretly continued his plots, playing a double game. At times he would assume the role of a pious Mohammedan and revile Judaism; at others he would enter into relations with Jews as one of their own faith. Thus in March, 1668, he gave out anew that he had been filled with the <a href="Holy_Spirit_in_Judaism" title="Holy Spirit in Judaism">Holy Spirit</a> at <a href="Passover" title="Passover">Passover</a> and had received a revelation. He, or one of <a href="Sabbateans" title="Sabbateans">his followers</a>, published a mystic work addressed to the Jews in which the most fantastic notions were set forth, e.g., that he was the true Redeemer, in spite of his conversion, his object being to bring over thousands of Mohammedans to Judaism. To the sultan he said that his activity among the Jews was to bring them over to Islam. He therefore received permission to associate with his former coreligionists, and even to preach in their synagogues. He thus succeeded in bringing over a number of Mohammedans to his <a href="Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">cabalistic views</a>, and, on the other hand, in converting many Jews to Islam, thus forming a Judæo-Turkish sect (see <a href="D%C3%B6nmeh" title="Dönmeh">Dönmeh</a>), whose followers implicitly believed in him [as the <a href="Messiah_in_Judaism" title="Messiah in Judaism">Jewish Messiah</a>]. This double-dealing with Jews and Mohammedans, however, could not last very long. Gradually the Turks tired of Shabbetai's schemes. He was deprived of his salary, and banished from Adrianople to <a href="Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>. In a village near the latter city he was one day surprised while <a href="Psalms" title="Psalms">singing psalms</a> in a tent with Jews, whereupon the grand vizier ordered his banishment to <a href="Dulcigno" class="mw-redirect" title="Dulcigno">Dulcigno</a>, a small place in <a href="Albania_under_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Albania under the Ottoman Empire">Albania</a>, where he died in loneliness and obscurity.</q></cite>

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<li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Judaism/The-Lurianic-Kabbala#ref35335">"Judaism – The Lurianic Kabbalah: Shabbetaianism"</a>. <a href="Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. <a href="Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>: <a href="Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica%2C_Inc." title="Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.">Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.</a> 23 January 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201012083249/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Judaism/The-Lurianic-Kabbala#ref35335">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2020. Retrieved 6 October 2020. <q>Rabbi <a href="Sabbatai_Zevi" title="Sabbatai Zevi">Shabbetai Tzevi</a> of <a href="%C4%B0zmir" title="İzmir">Smyrna</a> (1626–76), who <a href="List_of_Jewish_messiah_claimants" title="List of Jewish messiah claimants">proclaimed himself messiah</a> in 1665. Although the "messiah" was <a href="#Islam">forcibly converted to Islam</a> in 1666 and ended his life in exile 10 years later, he continued to have <a href="Sabbateans" title="Sabbateans">faithful followers</a>. A sect was thus born and survived, largely thanks to the activity of <a href="Nathan_of_Gaza" title="Nathan of Gaza">Nathan of Gaza</a> (c. 1644–90), an unwearying propagandist who justified the actions of Shabbetai Tzevi, including his final apostasy, with theories based on the <a href="Lurianic_Kabbalah" title="Lurianic Kabbalah">Lurian doctrine of "repair"</a>. Tzevi's actions, according to Nathan, should be understood as the descent of the just into the abyss of the "shells" in order to liberate the captive particles of divine light. The Shabbetaian crisis lasted nearly a century, and some of its aftereffects lasted even longer. It led to the formation of sects whose members were externally converted to Islam—e.g., the Dönme (Turkish: "Apostates") of <a href="Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Salonika</a>, whose descendants still live in <a href="Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>—or to <a href="Roman_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism">Roman Catholicism</a>—e.g., the <a href="Frankism" title="Frankism">Polish supporters</a> of <a href="Jacob_Frank" title="Jacob Frank">Jacob Frank</a> (1726–91), the self-proclaimed messiah and <a href="Conversion_to_Christianity#Catholicism" title="Conversion to Christianity">Catholic convert</a> (in <a href="Lands_of_the_Bohemian_Crown_(1648%E2%80%931867)" title="Lands of the Bohemian Crown (1648–1867)">Bohemia-Moravia</a>, however, the Frankists outwardly remained Jews).</q></cite>

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<li id="cite_note-JadidAlIslam-134"><a href="#cite_ref-JadidAlIslam_134-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFPirnazar" class="citation web cs1">Pirnazar, Jaleh. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210224145329/https://www.fis-iran.org/en/irannameh/volxix/mashhad-jewish-community">"The "Jadid al-Islams" of Mashhad"</a>. Foundation for Iranian Studies. Bethesda, MD, USA. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fis-iran.org/en/irannameh/volxix/mashhad-jewish-community">the original</a> on 2021-02-24. Retrieved 2012-11-13.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBantu2020" class="citation book cs1">Bantu, Vince L. (2020-03-10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CUe4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA141">A Multitude of All Peoples: Engaging Ancient Christianity's Global Identity</a>. InterVarsity Press. p. 141. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8308-2810-4</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> Jacques Ryckmans, La persécution des chrétiens himyarites au sixième siècle, Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologisch Inst. in het Nabije Oosten, 1956 pp 1–24

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<li id="cite_note-RobinCJ_(2012)-231"><a href="#cite_ref-RobinCJ_(2012)_231-0">^</a> Christian Julien Robin,'Arabia and Ethiopia,'in Scott Johnson (ed.) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GKRybwb17WMC&pg=PA289">The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity,</a> Oxford University Press, 2012, pp.247-333.p.282

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<li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBursteinNorwich2018" class="citation journal cs1">Burstein, Alon; Norwich, Liora (Summer 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/israelstudies.23.2.02">"From a Whisper to a Scream: The Politicization of The Ethiopian Community in Israel"</a>. Israel Studies. 23 (2). Indiana University Press: 25–50. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2979%2Fisraelstudies.23.2.02">10.2979/israelstudies.23.2.02</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/israelstudies.23.2.02">10.2979/israelstudies.23.2.02</a>. Retrieved 4 May 2025.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBarhany2013" class="citation news cs1">Barhany, Beejhy (5 February 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://forward.com/life/170532/israel-must-apologize-to-ethiopian-jews/">"Israel Must Apologize to Ethiopian Jews"</a>. Forward. Retrieved 4 May 2025.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> <cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199730049.001.0001/acref-9780199730049-e-0734">Conversion, Forced</a>. The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion. January 2011. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-973004-9</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-235"><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRosen2021" class="citation web cs1">Rosen, Jeremy (2021-12-02). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jeremyrosen.com/2021/12/forced-conversions.html">"Forced Conversions"</a>. Rabbi Jeremy Rosen.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-BrezianuSpânu2010-236">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BrezianuSpânu2010_236-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BrezianuSpânu2010_236-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFBrezianu2010" class="citation book cs1">Brezianu, Andrei (26 May 2010). The A to Z of Moldova. Scarecrow Press. p. 98. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8108-7211-0</bdi>. <q>Communist Atheism. Official doctrine of the Soviet regime, also called "scientific atheism." It was aggressively applied to Moldova, immediately after the 1940 annexation, when churches were profaned, clergy assaulted, and signs and public symbols of religion were prohibited, and it was applied again throughout the subsequent decades of the Soviet regime, after 1944. ... The St. Theodora Church in downtown Chişinău was converted into the city's Museum of Scientific Atheism,</q></cite>

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<li id="cite_note-237"><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a> Religion and the State in Russia and China: Suppression, Survival, and Revival, by Christopher Marsh, page 47. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2011.

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<li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> Inside Central Asia: A Political and Cultural History, by Dilip Hiro. Penguin, 2009.

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<li id="cite_note-Adappur2000-239"><a href="#cite_ref-Adappur2000_239-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAdappur2000" class="citation book cs1">Adappur, Abraham (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=44DYAAAAMAAJ">Religion and the Cultural Crisis in India and the West</a>. Intercultural Publications. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9788185574479</bdi>. Retrieved 14 July 2016. <q>Forced Conversion under Atheistic Regimes: It might be added that the most modern example of forced "conversions" came not from any theocratic state, but from a professedly atheist government — that of the Soviet Union under the Communists.</q></cite>

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<li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> Statement of Principles and Policy on Atheistic Education in Soviet Russia, translation from Russian, Stephen Schmidt, S.J., transcribed P. Legrand, page 3

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<li id="cite_note-Viking_p.494-241">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Viking_p.494_241-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Viking_p.494_241-1">b</a> <a href="Geoffrey_Blainey" title="Geoffrey Blainey">Geoffrey Blainey</a>; <a href="A_Short_History_of_Christianity" title="A Short History of Christianity">A Short History of Christianity</a>; Viking; 2011; p.494

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<li id="cite_note-MartinAmis-242"><a href="#cite_ref-MartinAmis_242-0">^</a> Martin Amis; Koba the Dread; Vintage Books; London; 2003; <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1400032202</bdi>; p.30-31

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<li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> Geoffrey Blainey; A Short History of Christianity; Viking; 2011; p.494"

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<li id="cite_note-Marsh2011-244"><a href="#cite_ref-Marsh2011_244-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMarsh2011" class="citation book cs1">Marsh, Christopher (20 January 2011). Religion and the State in Russia and China: Suppression, Survival, and Revival. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 13. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4411-0284-3</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Blake2014-245">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Blake2014_245-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blake2014_245-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFBlake2014" class="citation book cs1">Blake, Jonathan S. (19 April 2014). "By the Sword of God": Explaining Forced Religious Conversion. <a href="Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>. pp. 15, 17.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> Peter Hebblethwaite; Paul VI, the First Modern Pope; HarperCollins Religious; 1993; p.211

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<li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> Norman Davies; Rising '44: the Battle for Warsaw; Viking; 2003; p.566 & 568

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<li id="cite_note-Viking_p.508-248"><a href="#cite_ref-Viking_p.508_248-0">^</a> <a href="Geoffrey_Blainey" title="Geoffrey Blainey">Geoffrey Blainey</a>; <a href="A_Short_History_of_Christianity" title="A Short History of Christianity">A Short History of Christianity</a>; Viking; 2011; p.508

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<li id="cite_note-FranklinWiddis2006-249"><a href="#cite_ref-FranklinWiddis2006_249-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFFranklinWiddis2006" class="citation book cs1">Franklin, Simon; Widdis, Emma (2 February 2006). National Identity in Russian Culture. <a href="Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 104. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-02429-7</bdi>. <q>Churches, when not destroyed, might find themselves converted into museums of atheism.</q></cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Bevan2016-250"><a href="#cite_ref-Bevan2016_250-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBevan2016" class="citation book cs1">Bevan, Robert (15 February 2016). The Destruction of Memory: Architecture at War. Reaktion Books. p. 152. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-78023-608-7</bdi>. <q>Churches, synagogues, mosques and monasteries were shut down in the immediate wake of the Revolution. Many were converted to secular uses or Museums of Atheism (antichurches), whitewashed and their fittings removed.</q></cite>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGrath200646-251">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcGrath200646_251-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcGrath200646_251-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcGrath2006">McGrath 2006</a>, p. 46.

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<li id="cite_note-Froese2008-252"><a href="#cite_ref-Froese2008_252-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFFroese2008" class="citation book cs1">Froese, Paul (6 August 2008). The Plot to Kill God: Findings from the Soviet Experiment in Secularization. University of California Press. p. 122. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-520-94273-8</bdi>. <q>Before 1937, the Soviet regime had closed thousands of churches and removed tens of thousands of religious leaders from positions of influence. By the midthirties, Soviet elites set out to conduct a mass liquidation of all religious organizations and leaders... officers in the League of Militant Atheists found themselves in a bind to explain the widespread persistence of religious belief in 1937.... The latest estimates indicate that thousands of individuals were executed for religious crimes and hundreds of thousands of religious believers were imprisoned in labor camps or psychiatric hospitals.</q></cite>

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<li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBaran2011" class="citation journal cs1">Baran, Emily (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://monderusse.revues.org/9325">""I saw the light": Former Protestant believer testimonials in the Soviet Union, 1957–1987"</a>. Cahiers du Monde Russe. 52 (1): 163–184. <q>Atheist agitators hoped that such stories would help to convince believers and non-believers alike that the search for purpose in life could be solved with the discovery of atheism and communism. Yet some accounts suggest the conversion to militant atheism did not always end individuals' existential questions. To begin with, many former believers joined and left several religious organizations prior to renouncing faith altogether. Their life history could not be simply divided into two halves. One man recounted having joined the Baptists, Pentecostals, and the Seventh-Day Adventists before abandoning religion. Another man had been an Old Believer, Baptist, Pentecostal, and Witness. In other words, many believers had spent time as non-believers, but found life without religious faith somehow unsatisfying. As a result, some former believers admitted to having previously left religious organizations, only to return to them later. Many of them noted how after publicly denouncing Protestantism, they continued to receive visits from their former religious leaders asking them to reconsider. Indeed, atheist propaganda sometimes included complaints that once a believer had been convinced to leave his faith, atheist agitators lost interest in him, viewing the case as resolved.</q></cite>

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<li id="cite_note-HorneDavidson2013-254"><a href="#cite_ref-HorneDavidson2013_254-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHorneDavidson2013" class="citation book cs1">Horne, Thomas Hartwell; Davidson, Samuel (21 November 2013). An Introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scriptures. Cambridge University Press. p. 30. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-108-06772-0</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-255"><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a> Latreille, A. FRENCH REVOLUTION, New Catholic Encyclopedia v. 5, pp. 972–973 (Second Ed. 2002 Thompson/Gale) <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-7876-4004-2</bdi>

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<li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMcGrath2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Alistair_McGrath" class="mw-redirect" title="Alistair McGrath">McGrath, Alistair E.</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NVCKDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA45">The Twilight of Atheism: The Rise And Fall of Disbelief in the Modern World</a>. Galilee. p. 45. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-385-50062-3</bdi>. Retrieved 9 May 2017.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Geoffrey_Blainey_p.508-259">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Geoffrey_Blainey_p.508_259-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Geoffrey_Blainey_p.508_259-1">b</a> Geoffrey Blainey; A Short History of Christianity; Viking; 2011; p.508

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<li id="cite_note-260"><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/111803/China/258959/Altaic#toc258961">Encyclopædia Britannica Online – China: Religion</a>; accessed 10 November 2013

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<li id="cite_note-268"><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.myheritage.es/FP/newsItem.php?s=114433561&newsID=68&sourceList=dir">"THE DECLINE AND FALL OF THE MARTIN-DEL-CAMPOs Part II"</a>. myheritage.es.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Joes,_Anthony_James_p._70-269">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Joes,_Anthony_James_p._70_269-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Joes,_Anthony_James_p._70_269-1">b</a> Joes, Anthony James <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=buHXFDFdeoQC&dq=plutarco+calles+anticatholic&pg=PA70">Resisting Rebellion: The History And Politics of Counterinsurgency</a> p. 70, (2006 University Press of Kentucky) <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-8131-9170-X</bdi>

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<li id="cite_note-THE_CRISTERO_REBELLION_–_PART_1-270"><a href="#cite_ref-THE_CRISTERO_REBELLION_–_PART_1_270-0">^</a> Tuck, Jim <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mexconnect.com/mex_/history/jtuck/jtcristero1.html">THE CRISTERO REBELLION – PART 1</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081221023407/http://www.mexconnect.com/mex_/history/jtuck/jtcristero1.html">Archived</a> 2008-12-21 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Mexico Connect 1996

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<li id="cite_note-272"><a href="#cite_ref-272">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Plutarco_Elias_Calles.aspx">Calles, Plutarco Elías</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150207084748/http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Plutarco_Elias_Calles.aspx">Archived</a> 2015-02-07 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001–05 Columbia University Press.

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Brassey's) <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1-57488-452-2</bdi>

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<li id="cite_note-275"><a href="#cite_ref-275">^</a> Ruiz, Ramón Eduardo <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/triumphstragedyh00ruiz/page/392">Triumphs and Tragedy: A History of the Mexican People</a> p.393 (1993 W. W. Norton & Company) <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-393-31066-3</bdi>

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</ol></div>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Religious_persecution_and_discrimination212" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Religious_persecution_and_discrimination212" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a> and <a href="Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">discrimination</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By group</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">